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AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

THE TRAINING OF 
BACKWARD CHILDREN 

TRANSLATED BY 

EMMA SYLVESTER, Pd. M. 

- Principal Public School No. 35, Manhattan, New York City 
From the German of Dr. B. Maemiel 




NEW YORK 
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 

1909 






ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION 
INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN 



COPYRIGHT, IQOg, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 
PUBLISHED, SEPTEMBER, IQOQ 



SEP 11 1909 



DEDICATED TO W. REEST, LITT. D., PH. D. 
PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY AT JENA 



PREFACE 

The difficulties of making an adequate trans- 
lation of any text are too well understood and 
appreciated to need comment. In the following 
translation of Dr. Maennel's book, the aim has 
been to present the important thoughts of the 
original as closely as was consistent with their 
transfer from the German into the English 
language. 

The translator hereby acknowledges her indebt- 
edness to all who assisted by advice, encouragement, 
or by reading and criticism of the manuscript. 

The final chapter of the work in our own 
country was compiled from numerous sources. 

E. S. 
Jm/«/, 1909. 



vl3 



CONTENTS 



I. History of the Rise and Development of 

Auxiliary Schools .... 3 

II. Why Auxiliary Schools were Established . 23 

III. What Plan Shall be Followed in Admitting 

Pupils to Auxiliary Schools, and What 
Pupils Shall Be Considered Eligible ? . 39 

IV. The Parents, and the Environment of Aux- 

iliary School Pupils ( Before and During 
Attendance at School ) ... 70 

V. The Health of Auxiliary School Pupils . 79 

VI. The Auxiliary School Pupil and his Char- 
acteristic Traits .... 90 

VII. The Auxiliary School Building . . .124 

VIII. The Organization of an Auxiliary School 

and the Classification of Its Pupils . 128 

IX. The Programme . . . . .133 

X. The Course of Study . . . . 138 

XI. Methods of Teaching . , , ,151 



X AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XII. Auxiliary School Discipline . . . 162 

XIII. The Preparation of the Auxiliary School 

Pupil for the Church .... 171 

XIV. The Relation of the State toward the Aux- 

iliary School ..... 176 

XV. The Teaching Force of the Auxiliary School 

— - the Teachers and the Principal . 189 

XVI. The Pedagogical Value of the Auxiliary 

School 198 

XVII. The Education of Exceptional Children in 

the United States .... 200 

Bibliography ...... 245 



INTRODUCTION 

In the Preface of the German Edition, the 
author states that these lectures were delivered in the 
Ernst Abbe Volkhaus at Jena from August 10-14, 
1904. They formed one of the so-called "vacation 
courses" given there. Upon invitation of the 
publishers — B. Teubner, Leipzig — these lectures 
are here presented to the general public in some- 
what enlarged form. 

The author hopes to impress his readers with 
the great need of work among defective pupils, not 
only for its influence on the theory and practice of 
child study and education, but also for its influence 
on the welfare of the people at large. He hopes, 
furthermore, to win for the cause such professional 
people as physicians, clergymen, and jurists, and 
indeed all those who possess the broader humani- 
tarian spirit. If he succeeds in this he feels that 
his work will not have been in vain. 



AUXILIARY EDUCATION 



AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

I 

HISTORY OF THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF 
AUXILIARY SCHOOLS 

THE development of "auxiliary schools" for 
defective pupils may be traced to the 
middle years of the past century. These early 
beginnings were termed "additional" or "assist- 
ing" classes, and the first of these was established 
at Halle in Saxony. According to the minutes 
of a meeting of the school board held in Septem- 
ber, 1859, Mr. Haupt, principal of one of the 
schools, recommended the "formation of a sepa- 
rate or special class for defective pupils (num- 
bering seventeen), providing for about two 
hours of instruction daily." This recommenda- 
tion was carried into effect by the school author- 
ities ; a teacher from a regular school (Volksschule) 
was directed to give two hours instruction daily 
to those pupils who were not making satisfactory 
progress in the grades. It was some time before 

3 



4 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

this plan found much favour; but in time pupils 
from various schools were gathered into one 
class and received twenty hours instruction per 
week. Still, we must concede to Principal Haupt 
the honour of having established the first auxil- 
iary class. (Principal Haupt died in 1904, after a 
long and eflScient service as councillor and school 
superintendent at Merseberg.) 

At Halle, in the meantime, the subject of 
auxiliary schools began to receive more careful 
attention, though, to be sure, it had been under- 
taken at first in a sort of half-hearted way, and 
with only practical ends in view; now the matter 
was given a more thorough and scientific founda- 
tion, and the principles underlying it received more 
careful attention and study. In 1863, K. F. 
Kern delivered a lecture before the pedagogical 
society at Leipzig, on the care and training of 
defective children. He recommended, nay urged, 
the establishment of special schools for pupils 
who were unable to keep pace with their fellows. 
In 1864, Th. Stotzner published the first pam- 
phlet bearing on the subject: "Schools for Defec- 
tive Children; A Plan for their Organization." 
The pamphlet contained an earnest appeal to all 
school authorities to establish schools for deficient 
pupils, especially in the larger cities. It was 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 5 

hoped by that means of these schools those unfor- 
tunate children who so often become a burden to 
the community in which iliej live might be devel- 
oped into useful citizens. This was to be accom- 
plished with the aid of suitable teachers and a 
carefully adapted course of instruction. In 1865, 
at a meeting of the general German Teachers' 
Association held at Leipzig, Stotzner and Kern 
organized a society for the study of what may be 
termed pedagogical hygiene. In the same year, 
they established also a society for the study of the 
educational advancement of mentally deficient 
children, with headquarters at Hanover. This 
society, however, did not remain in existence very 
long. 

The Kern-Stotzner suggestions were carried into 
effect in Dresden long before they became opera- 
tive in Leipzig. In the former city an auxiliary 
class registering sixteen pupils was established as 
early as 1867. Other places, notably Gera and 
Elberfeld, followed in the seventies, Brunswick 
and Leipzig about 1881. Berlin took no part 
in the movement until 1898; in this year a num- 
ber of auxiliary or special classes were established 
for pupils who could not successfully carry out the 
regular course of instruction owing to physical or 
psychical defects. The special instruction aimed 



6 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

to advance these pupils so that they might later 
be admitted again into the regular grades; or, if 
this failed, to give them whatever preparation 
they were capable of receiving in order to fit them, 
as far as possible, for self-support. The oflBcial 
report of the city authorities (of Berlin) contains 
the following, in explanation of the city's failure to 
establish separate auxiliary schools: "A num- 
ber of cities and towns have established separate 
or special auxiliary schools; we have not done 
so for the following reasons: In the first place, 
the distances to and from the schools would be too 
great, in a large city like Berlin; secondly, the 
assignment of pupils to a special school would 
brand them as inferior — perhaps, in many cases, 
prematurely or without suflficient cause. We have 
therefore preferred to retain the pupil in his own 
school district; to place him in a class of small 
register, where he can receive more careful atten- 
tion and instruction. We purpose to bring him 
back into association with normal children as soon 
as possible — that is, we aim to replace special 
instruction by regular instruction at the earliest 
possible moment." In classes of this kind, the 
register does not exceed twelve pupils, and they 
receive twelve periods of instruction per week. 
Usually the pupils admitted to these special 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 7 

classes are such as have attended the regular 
schools for a period of at least two years without 
making satisfactory progress. We must acknow- 
ledge, however, that our aim {i. e., that of 
returning pupils to regular instruction) has sel- 
dom been accomplished. In 1903, for example, 
there were 91 special classes in Berlin, with 755 
boys and 547 girls; of this whole number, 36 
boys and 29 girls were returned to the regular 
grades. As a result, Berlin finally established 
a system of special classes, based somewhat closely 
upon the plan of the previously organized auxil- 
iary schools of other German cities. In 1903, 
according to P. v. Gizycki, the 91 classes men- 
tioned above were distributed among some 41 
different schools. The Prussian department of 
education has not taken kindly to the Berlin plan; 
on the contrary, it has advocated the plan fol- 
lowed at Halle, recognizing the need of auxiliary 
schools, rather than special classes. 

Under date of October 27, 1892, the Prussian 
minister of education criticizes somewhat severely 
the plan followed in certain cities with large school 
systems, i. e., the plan of the so-called " Abschluss- 
klassen" (finishing classes) intended for pupils who 
were unable to attain the standard set for nor- 
mal pupils in the Volksschulen, In November, 



8 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

1892, these classes (Abschlussklassen) underwent 
an investigation, and, as a result, certain regula- 
tions were formulated, tending to establish impor- 
tant points concerning the further and more effec- 
tive development of auxiliary schools. One point 
deserves special mention here — the minister 
makes a careful distinction between children 
neglected at home, and those who are naturally 
deficient. Of the latter, only those "who, during 
at least two years' attendance at the Volksschule, 
have shown themselves incapable of attaining the 
standard set, are indicated as requiring special 
attention and instruction. These children must 
show, however, that they are capable of receiv- 
ing some degree of training. The advice and 
cooperation of a physician are shown to be of 
prime importance in deciding the question of 
assigning pupils to special classes, inasmuch 
as physical imperfections and previous illnesses 
often exert a strong influence on psychical devel- 
opment. The records of the development of 
individual pupils, when carefully made, have 
proved very useful." 

It was shown, in addition, that many of the 
larger cities now supply abundant means so that 
the register of auxiliary classes need not exceed 
twenty-five pupils. By means of an extra remun- 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 9 

eration (in addition to the regular salary) excel- 
lent teachers of both sexes are secured for work 
in auxiliary schools and classes. These teachers 
are drawn from among the very best in the Volks- 
schulen. The designation auxiliary classes (Hilfs- 
klassen) for children of subnormal endowment 
is "regarded as the most appropriate, and is the 
one most frequently used — chiefly out of con- 
cern for the feelings of the parents of such 
children." 

The minister further recommends that the 
periods of instruction should not exceed half an 
hour in length; that the standard set be consider- 
ably lower than in corresponding classes for nor- 
mal children ; and finally, that the work assigned to 
the highest grade of the auxiliary school correspond 
roughly to that of about the middle grade of the 
regular Voiksschule course, and that in auxiliary 
classes, special stress be placed upon such sub- 
jects as will develop dexterity and practical skill. 

In April, 1901, the Prussian minister again 
enters the field with a detailed account of the then 
existing schools for subnormal children of school 
age. At that time, there were, in 42 cities, 
some 91 schools, containing 4,728 pupils distrib- 
uted among 233 classes. Concerning the ques- 
tion of the auxiliary school's need of a physician, 



10 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

the following statement is made: "Regular 
and periodic examinations by physicians are 
indispensable. Before the next report is made, 
I trust that every auxiliary school will have its 
own regular physician." Concerning the trans- 
fer of pupils from auxiliary schools to the regular 
schools, he says: "In certain places it is customary 
to transfer the older pupils from auxiliary classes 
into the lower grades of the Volksschule. Such 
transfers should never be made; the great dif- 
ference in age between pupils so transferred, and 
those of normal development, tends to produce 
and to enhance the very difficulties which the 
establishment of special classes aims to prevent; 
and the deficient pupils would soon be sent out of 
the schools inefficient as far as self-support is 
concerned." In short, the Prussian educational 
authorities have approved of what has been 
accomplished in the establishment of special 
classes for defectives, and have encouraged their 
further organization. (While this book was in 
press, another report has appeared under date 
of January 2, 1905; it points with approval to the 
fact that many changes suggested in former 
reports have been carried out.) The teachers in 
Prussian auxiliary schools are to be congratulated 
on the stand taken by their educational authori- 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 11 

ties. The cause of auxiliary schools will prosper in 
Prussia because of this ; the authorities have shown 
that they have confidence in the insight and gener- 
osity of the larger communities, as well as in the 
zeal and devotion of those who labour for the 
cause of auxiliary schools. Such confidence will 
bring about better results than much legislation 
on the subject. So far as can be learned, the 
Prussian authorities have issued no regulations 
whatever; they have concerned themselves entirely 
with the gathering of information on the subject, 
and recommending for adoption those measures 
found most worthy. 

Other German states soon followed the lead 
of Prussia. According to a report published 
in the Schulblatt of Saxony in January, 1905, 
there were, at that time in 180 cities, some 492 
classes for defective pupils, giving special instruc- 
tion to 5,868 boys and 4,753 girls. If we include 
the city of Berlin, we have 583 classes, with 6,623 
boys and 5,300 girls. 

That a lively interest is manifested in this class 
of schools in Germany, is evidenced by the fact 
that the principals, teachers, and others interested 
in the work, are banding themselves together, form- 
ing various associations. In 1898, there was formed 
a national association of auxiliary schools, and 



12 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Dr. Wehrhau, city superintendent at Hanover, was 
chosen president. In the smaller cities and towns, 
similar associations were formed. These serve to 
encourage and to stimulate to further service and 
study every one who joins them. 

Discussions on various topics related to the 
subject appear from time to time in the general 
pedagogical press, and in other publications 
devoted exclusively to auxiliary school affairs. 
Among the latter may be mentioned the proceed- 
ings of the national association, the Zeitschrift 
fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epilep- 
tischer (dealing with the care and training of the 
feeble-minded and epileptics); the Kinderfehler^ 
a publication devoted exclusively to the question 
of the German auxiliary school movement; the 
Zeitschrift fiir pddagogische Psychologie und 
Pathologie; contributions from the fields of 
pedagogical psychology and pedagogy in general; 
the Hilfsschule, and the recently established 
EoSy a quarterly publication devoted to the 
science and treatment of abnormal children. In 
addition to these, there is an extensive collection 
of independent literature on closely related sub- 
jects — so extensive and so important, indeed, 
as to call for a reliable bibliography to serve as a 
guide. 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 13 

The auxiliary school movement, if so it may be 
called, has recently gained a foothold in other 
countries beside Germany. According to the 
Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege (a journal 
devoted to the consideration of school hygiene) 
a special school for defectives was considered in 
Austria in 1895. In accordance with the decree 
of a certain district school board in the city of 
Vienna, defective pupils were withdrawn from 
the Volksschulen and " burgher" schools and placed 
in separate classes for special instruction. Further- 
more, a special department of instruction was 
established to care for all defective children of 
school age. In 1902, an effort was made to bring 
about a closer connection between schools of this 
type, and to further the establishment of these 
schools in the cities, towns, and smaller com- 
munities. This was the aim of the "Association 
for the Care of the Feeble-minded," which also 
devotes itself to the care of defective children dis- 
missed from the auxiliary schools, and to such 
children as are in need of legal protection. On 
the whole, however, the organization of the work 
for the feeble-minded has made but little progress 
in Austria so far. "The total number of auxil- 
iary classes in all of Austria is less than half that 
in Hamburg alone. By far the greater number of 



14 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

such children are still left entirely without any 
instruction, or remain in the regular Volksschulen." 

In 1905 (according to Eos), Hungary became 
interested in the partially abnormal child, but to 
date little has been done in the matter of organ- 
izing special schools or classes, except, perhaps, 
at Budapest. It is to be hoped, however, that the 
Hungarian Commission of School Hygiene will 
soon direct its energies toward the organization of 
such schools; and that the excellent recommen- 
dations (submitted by its chairman. Dr. A. v. 
Naray, of Szabo) concerning the special scien- 
tific training of auxiliary school teachers, will 
produce the desired effect. 

Auxiliary schools have been in operation in 
Switzerland since 1888. Basel and Berne each 
claim the distinction of having been the pioneer 
in their establishment, but they did not long 
continue alone in the field. Their example was 
soon followed by other cities and towns, so that in 
1903, we find at least 53 classes registering 1,096 
pupils; 55 teachers (12 men, 43 women) were 
engaged in giving the necessary instruction. For 
the purpose of securing uniformity and system 
in the rapidly developing auxiliary school move- 
ment, the " Schweizerische Gemeinniitzige Ges- 
ellschaft" (Swiss Association for Furthering the 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 15 

Public Welfare) established a special course for 
the training of auxiliary school teachers in 1898. 
The first of these courses was given in Zurich in 
the early part of the school year 1899-1900, and 
met with great success. 

Italy has no regular auxiliary classes as yet. 
In some of the larger Italian cities, however, back- 
ward pupils in the public schools are brought 
together and instructed by a woman teacher. 
In 1898, a national association for the care of 
feeble-minded children was organized. Among 
other things, this association recommended that 
instruction for the feeble-minded be given in 
special classes, in connection with the regular 
elementary schools. All pupils who were capable 
of receiving instruction at all {i. e., those not 
too far below the normal) were to be placed in 
separate classes to receive instruction suited to 
their needs and abilities. K. Richter states that 
in 1900, a sort of teachers' seminary was estab- 
lished in Rome; its object was to train teachers 
in the care and treatment of defectives. 

In 1899, Dr. Sante de Sanctis established inde- 
pendently a sort of ** asylum school," in Rome, 
for feeble-minded children of poor parents. The 
school is a sort of "day home," and accommodates 
about forty pupils. The preceptress (who was 



16 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

at one time an elementary school teacher) works 
under the direction of Dr. de Sanctis, who is an 
eminent psychiatrist. The teaching force consists 
of the preceptress, a teacher of music, a teacher of 
physical training, and a teacher whose duty it is 
to train the children to speak correctly; i. e., to 
correct the defects of speech so common among 
abnormal children. No regular system of studies 
is carried out, however, as is shown in the institu- 
tion's report of April 16, 1903; greater stress is 
laid on the medical and general educational phases 
than on the regular, formal, school training. It 
must be noted in passing, that much hard and 
persistent work must still be done before the aims 
of the national association can be realized even 
approximately, because in Italy compulsory atten- 
dance at the schools ends with the tenth year. 

The French have not yet been fully convinced 
of the need for, and value of, general treatment for 
feeble-minded children. The Parisian journal, 
Foi et Vie (November, 1904), calls attention to 
the fact that Seguin, Bost, and Bourneville made 
investigations respectively upon the mental, moral, 
and social capabilities of defectives in general; 
but aside from reports on the "medico-pedagogi- 
cal method" employed at Bicetre, near Paris, 
there is no general movement on behalf of defec- 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 17 

lives in France. The author of the essay "Pour 
les enfants anormaux" (in Manuel general de V in- 
struction primaire, 1904), states: "The most auto- 
cratically governed countries of Europe have made 
provision for the instruction of the masses; in 
addition, they have provided schools for the ner- 
vous, the deaf and dumb, and even for the idiotic. 
With us, the opposite is true; though French 
scholars were the first to point the way toward 
improving the natural defects of development, we 
as a people have done nothing; and in many 
families, defective children are permitted to grow 
up as best they can. Poor creatures destined to 
enter the struggle for existence, entirely unprepared ! 

Russia has, so far, done little or nothing for 
defectives. An institution at St. Petersburg — 
maintained by a religious order, and under the 
patronage of the dowager empress — receives and 
instructs epileptic and idiotic children from poor 
homes. In the same city. Dr. Maljarewski has 
conducted a sort of medico-pedagogical institu- 
tion since 1882; Dr. Maljarewski receives only 
idiotic and feeble-minded children from the 
wealthier circles. 

The Swedish Teachers' Journal of December, 
1904, states that "Stockholm will shortly estab- 
lish auxiliary classes in connection with the 



18 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Volksschulen." Since 1900, the teachers of Stock- 
holm have been calling the attention of the authori- 
ties to those "abnormal children, who are handi- 
capped in their development," and even advised 
methods of instructmg such children. About 
the same time. Dr. G. Hellstrom showed that of 
the 25,089 pupils in the elementary schools of 
Stockholm, 87 (0.35 per cent.) were foolish, and 
473 (1.88 per cent.) were backward. The authori- 
ties decided to organize auxiliary classes, whose 
register should not exceed twelve (12). Pupils 
admitted to these classes must have attended 
the regular schools from two to six terms without 
making satisfactory progress — and, further- 
more, a careful medical examination precedes 
and determines admission. Instruction, not to 
exceed four hours daily, is to be given by women 
teachers who volunteer to do the work. 

According to private information received by 
the author, auxiliary schools have been established 
at Christiania, Bergen, and Trondhjem in Norway, 
after the model of the German schools. Copen- 
hagen (Denmark) has supported an auxiliary 
school since 1900. Kinder jehler publishes an 
account of the auxiliary school systems of Holland 
and Belgium (1900) by Schenk, who states that 
these schools are successfully meeting the needs 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 19 

of their pupils, especially on the part of the phy- 
sicians connected with them. 

England has developed an auxiliary school sys- 
tem, somewhat similar to that of Germany. A 
"permissive act" of 1899 places the matter entirely 
in the hands of the communities; these, at their 
discretion, adopt the regulations concerning auxil- 
iary schools. The English auxiliary school con- 
sists of one to three classes, with women teachers. 
The first of these was opened in London, in 1892; 
in 1903, there were sixty such schools with 3,063 
pupils. This number, however, is wholly inade- 
quate, for within a short time, London will estab- 
lish almost as many more schools to accommodate 
altogether 5,000 pupils; London has, in reality, 
nearly 10,000 such children to care for. Other 
English cities are following the example set by 
London; in 1903, an auxiliary school association 
was organized at Manchester to look after the 
welfare of physically defective children. It must 
be stated that, in adopting the provisions of the 
"permissive act," the city declares "its willingness 
to place its auxiliary schools under the super- 
vision of the State authorities; and by so doing, 
it obtains aid from the State — paid according to 
the recommendation of the inspector in his reports." 
"One of the most important provisions of the 



20 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

law is that concerning compulsory attendance to 
the sixteenth year." 

Plans for the care of defective children in the 
United States were formulated at about the same 
time as in England. Until 1894, mentally deficient 
children in the public schools were treated like 
those "spoiled" by neglect, and, like the latter, 
sent to the disciplinary schools. But, in time, 
careful investigation into the character of minor 
offences and investigations in child study brought 
about a change, and classes for backward pupils 
were organized in the public schools. In the year 
1906, there were in the United States twenty-seven 
State and twenty-eight private schools of this type. 
In 1903 there were twenty State schools with 277 
teachers and 12,079 pupils; and twelve private 
institutions with sixty-two teachers and 495 pupils. 
The majority of these pupils are placed in schools 
of three classes, each limited to fifteen pupils. 
Most of the teachers are women; among the 277 
teachers in State schools, there are but sixty-one 
men. In most cases, the superintendents of these 
1 schools are physicians — they make interesting 
annual reports to the Commissioner of Education 
at Washington. These reports, which are pub- 
lished in advance sheets, contain many valuable 
observations and much practical information. 



RISE AND DEVELOPMENT 21 

We must not overlook the question of the 
auxiliary school movement in Australia — the 
author has learned through private sources that 
special classes have existed in Sidney and Mel- 
bourne for a number of years. 

The foregoing review shows an increasing 
interest in the welfare of the feeble-minded, which 
has come about as the result of a widespread sym- 
pathy. Many differences of opinion still exist, 
but on the whole, the tendency is to organize 
classes into schools, either in connection with the 
public schools, or completely independent of them. 
While a desire for greater uniformity prevails, 
there is still much freedom — which extends 
self not only to the purposes of the schools, but 
also to organization, teachers, and to methods 
of instruction. In some cases, the auxiliary schools 
come under the direct control of the State to guar- 
antee, perhaps, uniformity; in other cases, pri- 
vate institutions point the example to be followed; 
elsewhere, cities and towns set the example to 
smaller communities. 

As yet, there is, perhaps, too much freedom 
concerning pupils admitted to auxiliary schools. 
As a result, we do not distinguish carefully enough 
between the imbecile and the poorly endowed 
child; therefore, we find, as a rule, a prevalence 



n AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

of Imbecile or idiotic children in these schools, 
and consequently, we are forced to adopt a sort 
of merfico-pedagogical method in place of a more 
formal pedagogical one. Germany holds rather 
more firmly to the purely didactic principle, and 
seeks to preserve intact the character of the school, 
while giving due credit to the results of medical 
investigations. 

The school authorities of many countries ac- 
knowledge their indebtedness to Germany in the 
matter of the auxiliary school movement, and 
many of them are seeking to follow her praise- 
worthy example. 



n 

WHY AUXILIARY SCHOOLS WERE ESTABLISHED 

BEFORE the establishment of the so-called 
auxiliary schools (as outlined in the pre- 
vious chapter), it was the duty of the Volks- 
schule to assume the care of all pupils and to 
advance even those who, from the very outset, 
were incapable of learning. The schools were 
supposed to furnish pupils with the minimum 
amount of knowledge which is necessary even for 
a child of the lowest class; and, in addition, to care 
for such pupils as were incapable of keeping up 
with their comrades. 

Perhaps this attitude was merely an expression 
of helplessness in the face of the numerous and 
inexplicable psychical phenomena of childhood; 
perhaps it was the manifestation of an idea — 
which still exists, by the way — that the folk 
schools must not undertake to establish too 
comprehensive a view concerning the minimum 
requirements of elementary education; the en- 
dowment or ability of the average pupil must 

83 



24 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

always be kept in mind in framing the course 
of study. 

Teachers themselves have hindered the earlier 
establishment of special classes, in that they took 
the view, usually, that all pupils entrusted to 
their care and instruction could be taught suc- 
cessfully. We need but hark back to conditions 
which prevailed in public schools — in the seven- 
ties and eighties — for confirmation of the above. 

The primary teacher had seventy or eighty 
pupils committed to his care. Their parents did 
not dream of the necessity of imparting to the 
teacher any information concerning the peculiari- 
ties of their children — knowledge which might 
be of great use to the teacher in his work. For 
the most part the parents rejoiced to know that the 
little "nuisances" were left in more or less capable 
hands. 

Now the teacher's work begins. As far as in 
him lies, he endeavours to do his best for every 
single pupil — in instruction and in development 
generally. As a teacher of the lowest grade was 
often a beginner in the art of teaching, a long time 
passed ere his eyes were opened to the conduct of 
some of his charges. In the normal school, to be 
sure, he was taught that he could not treat all chil- 
dren alike. But he also carried with him this idea — 



ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 25 

that instruction possessing logical sequence and 
clearness, and good discipline, are all-powerful in 
their effect on childish minds — expanding and 
unfolding even the weakest minds. 

In spite of his efforts to comply with the require- 
ments of the course of study, difficulties soon arose. 
There were some pupils who failed utterly to com- 
prehend his instruction; from others he could not 
draw a single word. Others could not be disci- 
plined as he wished, and their restlessness and 
nervousness affected the class as a whole. As a 
true disciple of Pestalozzi, the teacher gave much 
of his time, energy, and attention to these pupils ; 
but even when his requirements were reduced 
almost to a minimum, his patience and care were 
scarcely rewarded — as far as the pupils were con- 
cerned, the result was nil. Finally, the teacher 
lost all patience and became a stern judge. Every 
act came under his severe criticism. 

These occasions became more and more fre- 
quent, and grew at last to be a constant source of 
annoyance to the teacher, and of sorrow to the 
pupils in question. They could not understand 
why their teacher was so "strict" with them; 
they felt keenly the indifference of their fellow 
pupils who constantly made sport of them. As 
a result, their sensitive natures became hardened 



26 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

and their poor stunted minds grew narrower still; 
they grew more and more indifferent to their 
lessons and become filled with an intense desire 
to remain aw^ay from school altogether. The 
teacher finally lost all interest in them and their 
welfare, and left them entirely to themselves, and 
they became merely passive listeners, taking no 
active part in the work at all. 

" Promotion time" comes at length — the teacher 
is delighted at the thought of taking his bright 
pupils on to a higher grade, and "leaving behind" 
those who so constantly annoyed him. Branded 
as "irreclaimable" and "troublesome," these poor 
unfortunates are passed over to a new teacher 
and a new year of trials opens for teacher and 
pupils alike. The question arises — "Shall pupils 
who do not reach the required standard, even 
after a second year, still remain in the same 
grade .^" The fact that eternal sameness must 
eventually deaden the little remaining intellect 
of these pupils, leads the teacher at last to the 
decision that the oldest of them should be sent to 
the next higher grade. Perhaps new subjects 
and new conditions may serve as stimuli to arouse 
new life and effort in minds long seemingly 
indifferent. Alas! the result falls far short of 
the expectation. Pupils marked among their 



ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 27 

fellows by great difference in age are forced to 
endure much rudeness from their comrades; 
and moreover, often hear their teacher say that 
"nothing in the world can be done with them." 
Finally all self-respect dies out, and the pupils 
lose every vestige of confidence in themselves, 
and feel themselves constantly out of place in 
the life of the school. With each term, the 
teacher desires more earnestly to rid himself of 
those pupils who create a poor impression of 
the class as a whole, but he must suppress his 
desire time and again. There are but two methods 
by which the Volksschule may rid itself of burden- 
some and utterly incapable pupils. 

(1) The reform school (reformatory) which, 
however, opens its doors only to incorrigible 
vagabonds ; (2) institutions or asylums for idiots 
and imbeciles, open to those poor unfortunates 
who are entirely helpless or imbecile. Any person 
who has ever attempted to bring either proposal 
to the attention of the authorities can testify to 
the difficulties involved in placing a child in one 
of either of these classes of institutions. 

Taking for granted, then, the fact that among 
the unpromoted pupils who in time are "pushed" 
into the middle grades of the school, only a small 
number are fit subjects for either reform schools 



28 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

or asylums — what is to become of those others, 
far more numerous, whom the Volksschulen dare 
not shut out ? Since the schools may not expel 
a pupil because of his lack of ability to learn, 
the teacher must needs wait until the child has 
reached the age of confirmation, when dismissal 
from school is permissible. 

Eight years ^ — eight lost years — think of it! 
— years of wretched work and annoyance for 
the teacher; years of hindrance for the pupil 
of average ability ; years of retrogression — mental 
and physical — for those mentally defective ! 
Would it not be possible to make a change earlier 
in the pupil's school career, and thus prevent 
much of this annoyance, disappointment, and 
harm ? 

Is it an honour to the Volksschulen when 
pupils, who have been confirmed, are discharged 
from its lower and middle grades ? 

In spite of the efforts put forth by school 
authorities, and in spite of the earnest work of 
teachers, we have not yet succeeded in bringing 
all pupils up to the same standard, relatively 
speaking. 

The Allgemeine Deutsche Lehrerzeitung (Oct. 
9, 1904) (a German educational paper) quotes 
the following from the Christian World of Vienna: 



ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 29 

"A visit to the folk schools in the so-called working- 
men's districts in Favoriten and Ottakrine: will 
show an astounding number of pupils in first or 
second grade (lowest grades) who have almost 
completed the term of compulsory attendance 
at school. Of many of them, the register states 
* Promoted to next higher grade because of age 
or size'! Many leave school, indeed, without 
having learned even the elements of reading and 
writing!" 

Mr. Wagner (who quoted from the Vienna 
World as above) quotes a somewhat similar 
statement from a daily newspaper which shows 
conditions in London: 

Judge {to fifteen year old boy, who is apparently 
well developed\ physically) : " Why don't you 
work ?" 

Boy: "I can't." 

Mother: "Lie will soon be fifteen years old, 
then he can leave school." 

Judge: In what class are you.^^" 

"In the first" (our lowest). 

"That is the infant class. Tell me, my boy, 
how many weeks in a year ?" 

"I don't know." 

"Did no one ever tell you.^" 

"No." 



30 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

*' How many days make a week ?" 

"I don't know." 

Mother: "Along certain lines he lacks ability, 
but in other ways he is much more clever. Yester- 
day morning, for example, he took a shilling 
from his brother's pocket, and spent two hours 
in the public house, eating and drinking. He 
won't work; he simply wants to eat and drink." 

In Germany also, many pupils still leave the 
public schools from third year grades, after 
having spent seven or eight years in school. A 
careful examination of such pupils shows that 
they fall into the following groups: 

(1) Children who have difficulties of speech 
or sight, or hearing; epileptics. Every teacher 
knows how such pupils retard class work and 
progress. Still, these pupils have a right to 
"harmonious development" as given in public 
schools. Modern pedagogy should make provision 
for these pupils — in the form of corrective 
courses for special defects of sight, or speech, or 
hearing, as the case may be. The work is one 
which will surely yield excellent results, but, 
unfortunately, in many communities, the establish- 
ment of such special classes cannot be realized, 
probably for financial reasons. 

(2) Many pupils constantly lag behind theii 



ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 31 

fellows, not because of any sensory defect, but 
because their minds are slow to elaborate the 
stimuli furnished by the senses into higher psychical 
products. Such pupils often suffer greatly from 
the fact that their minds work so slowly and 
sluggishly as to require much attention and drill. 
But, we ask, would it be wise to deprive them 
entirely of the influence of proper school training ? 
It was a long time before the following truths 
became generally recognized: 

(1) That because of abnormal psychical 
development, certain pupils fail utterly to derive 
any benefit even from the best kind of teaching. 

(2) That special schools should be provided 
for such pupils — schools adapted to their special 
needs. 

Critical observers finally awakened interest in 
the various types of abnormal pupils: then 
began the work of the psychologist and psychia- 
trist, constantly reinforced and assisted by the 
individual observer ; the result was a more general 
insight into the development of the abnormal 
child — a development which calls for special 
care and treatment at home and in school. 

A certain uniformity of opinion concerning 
the establishment of auxiliary schools is to be 
noted. As far as the writer knows, only one 



32 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

expression of the opposite side of the question 
has been made public. J. H. Witte describes 
the establishment of auxiliary schools as the 
result of the clever scheming of certain "hot 
heads" (Heissporne) — a somewhat startling 
statement to be sure. Still, Witte does not wish 
to startle his readers — he gives reasons for his 
statements. In his opinion, the auxiliary school 
withdraws the mentally deficient pupil from the 
helpful influence exerted by normal children; 
furthermore, he holds that the effort to benefit a 
class composed entirely of defectives can never 
be successful. He believes most firmly in the 
force of example — place a disobedient child 
among obedient children to learn obedience — 
have your class made up of one-third feeble- 
minded and two-thirds normal pupils. This plan 
is often followed by teachers in dealing with the 
indolent or inattentive. If, however, a pupil is 
utterly incapable of attending, if he is forced to 
remain mentally sluggish owing to physical defects ; 
if he remains morally unstable, were it not wiser 
to separate him from his mates as soon as possible ? 
The "better environment" of the class can never 
act as a spur to such a child. To see oneself 
constantly outdistanced results in embittering 
one's mind — both during and after the unhappy 



ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 33 

school days. How different, on the other hand, 
is the mental attitude of a pupil trained in a 
special class! He is quickened and stimulated 
and his whole emotional attitude changes. He 
soon perceives that he is progressing with his 
fellows — that his teacher gives him the same 
attention that is bestowed upon his classmates; 
the scorn of his fellows disturbs him no more; 
the teacher's harsh words and punishments have 
been changed into kindly treatment. Instruction 
is now better suited to his mental grasp, and rays 
of enlightenment at last begin to fall into the 
hitherto gloomy voids of his mind. 

Progress will of necessity be slow; it takes 
time for the pupil to accustom himself to new 
conditions; an abnormal mind requires longer 
time, and often more powerful supports than a 
normal mind. But in the end, the pupil will 
gain materially, for he begins to feel the spur of 
being able to accomplish something himself. It 
is in reality a philanthropic duty to establish 
classes for feeble-minded children. 

When Witte speaks of "coupling weak with 
weak" as a measure of superior strength imposed 
on weakness, he overlooks the fact that pupils 
usually do their best work when placed among 
those whose mental condition is nearest their 



34 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

own. So pedagogy does not err when it urges 
the separation of dull pupils from among those 
more highly endowed, and places the former in 
classes to receive special treatment. 

Witte goes on to make further objections 
against auxiliary schools on hygienic grounds: 
"Feeble-minded children being delicate physically, 
and incapable of resisting disease, naturally 
become the source of epidemics." This cannot 
be proven. In the first place, the State rules 
(in Prussia, at least) that every auxiliary school 
shall be under constant medical supervision; 
teachers are trained to assist in caring for the 
physical welfare of their charges, and avoiding 
the spread of disease. Again, those who have 
made careful observations regarding the health 
of auxiliary school pupils do not hesitate to state 
that there is far less of illness (from the ordinary 
diseases of childhood) among these pupils than 
among those attending the folk schools. The 
reason for this lies in the fact that many feeble- 
minded children have had all infectious diseases 
before their admission to the school — and indeed, 
in many cases, are suffering from the after-effects 
of these. 

Finally, Witte accuses the founders and 
champions of auxiliary schools of materialistic 



ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 35 

tendencies. "For the most part," he says, "they 
are victims of the advocates of superficial scientific 
and medical theories and of the so-called experi- 
mental psychology, which states that mental life 
is entirely dependent upon the physical — a 
view which is not altogether true." 

The practical school man knows whereof he 
speaks — and he does not lapse into materialism 
— when he says: "This or that child evinces 
certain psychical peculiarities as a result of 
disease, either inherited or contracted after birth; 
consequently he does not make satisfactory 
progress in his school work. But we cannot 
hold him responsible for his condition — he can- 
not progress much owing to the fact that physically 
he is more or less abnormal.'* 

Granted that brain processes furnish no direct 
clue as to how the intellectual life exists, and let 
us assume, for the time being, that "divine 
endowment" is necessary; still, experimental 
psychology and psychiatry can furnish evidence 
sufficient to prove convincingly that this "divine 
gift" in man is so small and so limited physically, 
that disregard or neglect of the physical often 
proves fatal to the "endowment." No practical 
teacher can set aside this truth; still, this does 
not, however, prove him to be a follower of the 



36 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

so-called '* medical pedagogy" which seeks to 
prove a sort of economic brain activity, and 
which looks upon the entire cerebral surface as 
a sort of repository for "moving memory pictures." 

L. Striimpell calls attention to the fact that 
medical therapeutics has clearly shown the 
dependence of a normal development of bodily 
life upon a properly directed psychic life; and 
further, has pointed to numerous injuries to the 
body resulting from the application of false 
pedagogical principles; but therapeutics has its 
limits — it must ever hold itself aloof from all 
speculations which lack the basis of real experience. 

Knowledge regarding the physical and mental 
life of childhood is of so recent origin and requires 
deepening and broadening; purely materialistic 
speculations, therefore, are too risky. 

But the necessity for auxiliary schools is not 
based upon such superficial data. On the other 
hand, the auxiliary school will render great 
service in the matter of better comprehension of 
childhood with its defects and good qualities, as 
a result of careful observations and investigations. 
For this purpose the teacher will draw on the 
fields of genetic psychology, psychiatry, and 
what may be called pedagogic pathology, and 
carefully study what the writer calls the "psycho- 



ESTABLISHMENT OF SCHOOLS 37 

pathic defects" of childhood and youth. This 
thought — advanced first by Koch, and later by 
Triiper, marks the great gap between the normal 
and the abnormal mind — a field rich in 
phenomena as it is difiicult of recognition. 

In spite of Witte's criticisms, then, the real 
cause for the establishment of auxiliary classes 
and schools lies in the fact that there are pupils 
who cannot follow the course given in ordinary 
Volksschulen — pupils not dull, perhaps, but rather 
abnormal. For them, the Volksschule is a place 
of torture — suppressing what little mentality they 
may possess. 

But the folk school is not unique in having 
pupils who cannot advance. Teachers in pre- 
paratory schools have met such cases. Leubuscher 
found two defectives among 165 pupils in the 
Meininger Realgymnasium. Laquer states that, 
comparatively speaking, defectives are as common 
among the well-to-do as among the poorer classes. 

Secondary schools have this advantage over 
the elementary schools — the privilege of dis- 
missing incapable pupils. This right, however, 
is seldom exercised. The authorities fail to 
make certain parents understand that their 
children are not normal, and consequently suffer 
from the amount of school work demanded of 



38 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

them. The poor child is often tortured with 
private lessons in addition to his school work, 
before his parents realize his inability to master 
the high school w^ork. For such pupils, special 
schools or institutions, as, for example, Triiper's 
ErzieJmngsheim, are far more appropriate than 
the regular secondary schools. 



Ill 



WHAT PLAN SHALL BE FOLLOWED IN ADMITTING 
PUPILS TO AUXILIARY SCHOOLS, AND WHAT 
PUPILS SHALL BE CONSIDERED ELIGIBLE? 

IT has been shown that pupils who are 
frequently "left back" in first, second, or 
third year classes, might better be placed in 
auxiliary schools. Now these questions arise — 
"What is the proper time to remove these children 
from the regular school?" and "How can we 
be certain that no pupil is unjustly admitted to 
the auxiliary school ?" 

Care must be exercised by teachers in recom- 
mending pupils for admission to these schools. 
In the ofttimes spasmodic and one-sided develop- 
ment of our pupils, a teacher, guided simply by 
the mood of a moment, may declare a pupil 
unfitted for the regular school work — and, 
without any further investigation — recommend his 
transfer to an auxiliary school. 

Unfortunate home surroundings, manual labour 
outside of school, irregular attendance (perhaps 



40 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

a result of frequent change of residence) — all of 
these may work injury to a child as far as his 
standing in school is concerned. The teacher 
must not be too anxious or over ready to propose 
pupils for special classes. 

It may be possible, in individual cases, that 
frequent punishment engenders a sort of defiance 
which will prevent progress on the part of a child; 
such a child may also be proposed for the 
auxiliary class. 

Teachers should be advised to make very 
careful observations before recommending the 
removal of any pupil. Occasionally it is wise 
to transfer a pupil to another teacher — a change 
of classes often exerts the same influence on a 
child as a change of air does in the case of a sick 
person. 

Every expedient must be tried, ere any child 
is sent to the auxiliary school. This presupposes 
that the teacher is more of an educator than an 
instructor. He must develop a deeper under- 
standing of the normal child — while thinking 
of the mental and physical well-being of indi- 
viduals, he must not lose sight of his class as a 
whole; in other words, he must be able to 
detect the signs of mental deficiency in children. 

There is much discussion at the present time 



ADMITTING PUPILS 41 

concerning feeble-mindedness, and the proper 
classifications of its various phases; every writer 
on the subject endeavours to find new terms 
in which to convey his ideas. In the practical 
work of the school, however, we are not concerned 
so much with scientific definitions as with the 
idea of learning to understand and recognize the 
deviations of child nature from the normal. 

Many a child, aflSicted from birth, may develop 
much as its fellows at home, except, perhaps, 
more slow^ly; at school, however, he may not 
be able to meet the great 'demands made upon every 
pupil. He may appear apathetic during the 
lesson periods; or perhaps to all appearances 
much interested, but without deriving much 
benefit therefrom. In the one case, the child 
tires easily and his eyes grow dull; he fails to 
grasp the instruction given, because the necessary 
reflection is beyond him. The teacher readily 
detects the shallowness of his knowledge and 
the fact that his ideas lack coherence and 
systematic arrangement. 

In the second case, the pupil is seemingly 
interested, and probably very attentive, but 
attention is short-lived: continuous attention is 
an impossibility in his case. His tendency to 
motor ^Qtiyity prevents his paying close attention 



42 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

though he may have willed to attend. He simply 
cannot sit still; he must move hands, head, feety 
in spite of orders to the contrary. 

Again, a child often appears apathetic because 
of a defect in speech. Perhaps, during his first 
weeks in school, he tried hard to take part in 
the work, but was soon made conscious of his 
deficiency by the teacher's harsh criticisms, or 
by the teasing of his mates. He becomes self- 
conscious and refuses to reveal his thoughts in 
speech at all. 

When defects in speech organs are such as are 
easily recognized, the child's unwillingness to 
speak is readily accounted for. But a cleft 
palate, an abnormally developed uvula, or an 
abnormal tongue are not readily recognized as 
being the causes of faulty speech. When one 
remembers the numerous difficulties which fall 
under the general head of stammering, or when 
one considers how often speech and even thought 
are hindered by pathological conditions of the 
air passages, we begin to understand how diflicult 
it is to discover all of the phases of abnormality. 

Another sort of difficulty arises when a talkative 
child confronts a more silent one. Talkativeness, 
like restlessness, may be regarded as a deviation 
from the normal, 



ADMITTING PUPILS 43 

Occasionally, a talkative child will answer 
correctly, and the teacher may be inclined to 
regard him as entirely normal; but in time, the 
utter senselessness of the child's talk reveals 
itself; for every problem he has but one solution, 
and for the same question, whose wording is 
slightly changed, he has many different answers. 
The latter are meaningless, and resemble the 
so-called reflex actions performed without the 
cooperation of the more complex mental activities. 

In the solution of the numerous diflficulties 
constantly cropping up, it has been thought that 
certain typical signs could be pointed out, by 
means of which feeble-minded persons could be 
detected. So we often run across references 
to the external signs of abnormal mental develop- 
ment — signs, for the most part, readily recognized. 
According to certain writers, nature has bestowed 
certain distinct signs on the abnormal. This 
truth is confirmed to a certain extent by ex- 
perience. 

Now and again, among defectives, we find 
some children with very large, almost square 
heads; or very small, pointed ones; occasionally 
we see heads very unsymmetrical, or we meet 
the Mongolian type, or the "frog" or "bird" 
face. But these cannot be regarded as infallible 



44 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

signs of degeneracy — at most, they simply serve 
in the way of confirming the fact of degeneracy. 

It is clear that lack of intelligence, as observed 
by teachers, is not the only standard by which 
to judge the abnormal psychical development 
of the child. Usually in addition to mental 
deficiencies, there are certain other peculiarities, 
and perhaps also defects in the realm of emotional 
development. The abnormally developed child 
not only lacks mental power, he is often perverse 
in morals, and unsocial; sometimes rough or 
coarse, sometimes extremely gentle: he violates 
the laws of good conduct, is fond of those things 
which most children abhor, and too often is guilty 
of sexual errors, which finally result in physical 
and nervous ill-health. He will take no part 
in play, unless urged; is given to brooding, 
never plays of his own free will; often gets into 
a passion if he does play with others; is irritable, 
or becomes a nuisance because of his excessive 
sensitiveness. 

The teacher may also discover a tendency to 
destructiveness among these children ; unless care- 
fully watched this may result in tormenting his 
fellow-beings, or animals. Abnormal children 
often show a sort of fiendish pleasure in the 
pain or sufferings of others. Sometimes they 



ADMITTING PUPILS 45 

evince a tendency to wander from home or from 
the home neighbourhood. Punishment has no 
effect upon such children; even rewards fail of 
result. 

In thus characterizing the ethical and spiritual 
defects of the abnormal child, we must by no 
means lose sight of his mental deficiencies. 
Many children, especially boys at the so-called 
"awkward age," and even girls in the course 
of their development, sometimes deviate from 
the normal in the development of the emotions 
and the will, without being fit subjects for auxiliary 
schools. In their case, the cause may be laid to 
faulty training, unfortunate home environment, 
etc. We must be careful not to regard moral 
delinquencies as indicative of pathological defects. 
"Neglected" children are not candidates for an 
auxiliary class — else these would soon deteriorate 
into institutions for the care and reformation of 
children. The foregoing paragraphs suggest some 
of the difiiculties encountered in the matter of 
determining the fitness of a pupil for admission 
to an auxiliary school. 

Many a pupil becomes, indeed, a sort of psycho- 
logical puzzle to his teacher. Certain signs seem 
real proofs of abnormality — others make the 
teacher hesitate. The teacher should seek to 



46 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

solve the difficult problem — perhaps the home 
may furnish explanations of the child's peculiar 
conduct. This may be accomplished in either 
one of two ways. The mother may be requested 
to visit the school, or the teacher may seek the 
parent in her home. It is, however, a difficult 
matter to get at the truth of things. Pride, 
shame, or poverty often cause people to be 
untruthful. If the parents' report seem untrust- 
worthy, certain other sources of information are 
open — the sisters of charity, the overseers of the 
poor, and the various information bureaus of the 
city and of the police department may furnish 
some of the information sought. 

Realizing the great difficulty involved in the 
question, "What must be done to avoid unjustly 
transferring pupils to auxiliary schools .'*" cer- 
tain question blanks, observation blanks, and 
admission blanks have been prepared and are 
here given. 

"Question sheets" will vary for the different 
schools; the diversity is explained by the indi- 
vidual opinions of the persons framing the ques- 
tions, and by the guiding principle involved. 

"Shall the doctor or the teacher plan the 
question sheet ?" is a pertinent question. 

It goes without saying, that a physician will 



ADMITTING PUPILS 47 

naturally consider certain important points which 
the teacher would surely omit, owing to his lack 
of experience. 

A, PLAN OF QUESTIONS EMPLOYED EST SCHOOLS AT 
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN 

Name 

Easter 19 

Residence 

Date of Birth 

Pupil Class School year 

Parents Vocation 

Home relations (Name of guardian) 

Number of miscarriages of mother Number of 

children 

Birth 

Legitimate Illegitimate 

Disease inherited Diseases of parents 

Mental disorders, lung trouble, dipsomania, crime, 
suicide, syphilis. 

Brothers and sisters 

Weak-minded, silly, epileptic, etc. 

Previous illnesses — especially such as convulsions, par- 
alysis, St. Vitus's dance, rickets, bladder trouble, fainting 
spells, etc. 

Sensory defects — squint, blind; lame; defects of 
speech, etc. 

Moral tendencies — false, thievish, sly, restless, irritable, 
unsocial, dull, given to crying, etc. 



48 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Opinions of children's teachers concerning industry, 
progress, development of ideas (especially of number) writing, 
reading, etc. 

Has child been recommended in any previous year as a 
candidate for auxiliary school ? 

Remarks. 
Rector School Physician 

B. EXAMINATION OF PUPIL PROPOSED FOR AN AUXILIARY AT 
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN, TOGETHER WITH " PERSONAL" 
SHEET OF THE SCHOOL 

Name 

Date and place of birth , 

Religion 



_ , !• of -I (name of father or guardian) 
Daughter ) I b j 

Residence floor 

Front house Rear house 

Pupil of school class 

since 

Recommended to auxiliary school on 

Recommended second time 

Entered auxiliary school 

Dismissed from auxiliary school 

Cause of dismissal 

Chosen occupation 

Information concerning parents ; condition of child during 
attendance at regular school; at time of entering auxiliary 
school, and while in attendance there from the lst-6th year. 



ADMITTING PUPILS 49 

1. Concerning parents. 

Birth, legitimate or illegitimate 



Is father living Age at death . 

Is mother living Age at death. 



Cause of death 

2. Concerning brothers and sisters 

Normal or not Pupils of an auxiliary school. . . 

Epileptic. . . .Idiotic. . . .Blind Deaf 

Number of brothers and sisters living and their ages. 
Number of brothers and sisters dead ; ages at death. 

Cause of death 

Number of miscarriages of mother 

3. Home conditions — poverty, poor home, character of 
family life, inability of father or mother to earn living. 

4. Inherited tendencies: 

Lung troubles, dipsomnia, mental disorders, crime, 
intermarriages between relatives, suicide. 

5. Diseases from which candidate has suffered: measles, 
scarlet fever, diphtheria, whooping cough, meningitis, 
rheumatism, paralysis, convulsions, St. Vitus's dance, fainting 
spells, bladder troubles, rickets, severe wounds to head, 
accidents. 

6. Development — learned to walk when old; 

learned to talk at 

7. Ailments from which child suffers at present: 

Headaches, cough, indigestion, glandular swellings, 
skin eruptions, convulsions, weakness of kidneys and 
bladder. 

8. Hearing — hard of hearing. . . . discharge from ears. . . . 



50 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

9. Sight — short-sighted, weak-sighted, cross-eyed, inflam- 
mation, color bhndness, quivering or twitching of the eyes. 

10. Speech and spech organs — stuttering, stammering, 
lisping, malformation of jawbone, irregular teeth, tonsils, 
thick tongue. 

11. Respiration — sleeps with mouth open difficulty 

of breathing through nostrils, shortness of breath. 

12. Physical deformities — spinal curvature, rupture, shape 
of head, left-handedness, chicken-breasted. 

13. Physical Condition (see health certificate). 

14. Character and disposition — serious, listless, sensitive, 
tearful, shy, timid, cheerful, passionate, companionable, 
cruel, annoying in class, restless, untidy, untruthful, thievish, 
excitable, slow, superficial, quarrelsome, disagreeable. 

15. Mental condition. 

Memory — (a) general. 

(6) in certain directions. 
(Number, form, words, colour, locality). 
Thinking power, attention, ability to comprehend, 
observation, power to memorize (poetry, melody, 
multiplication tables), impressions made by mental 
effort, retention of ideas, conceptions, judgment, 
imagination (lively ). 

16. Notes and advice of physician (see heatlh certificate). 

To be entered in auxiliary school ? 
To be refused admission .'' 

17. Are parents willing to have child entered in auxiliary 
school ? 

Yes No 



ADMITTING PUPILS ^1 

18. Resultof examination concerning admission to auxiliary 
school. 

Child's development in knowledge and skill (winter and 
summer terms) in regular school, and in auxiliary school 
first to sixth year. 

1. Religion — Knowledge, interest, retention of passages 
of Scripture, stories, songs. 

2. Observation lessons. 

Knowledge of objects, interest in observations, 
fables. 

3. The German language. 

(a) Reading — the written and printed alphabets, 

blending of sounds, syllables and words, reading of 

sentences, reading of longer and connected pieces. 

German and Roman type; mechanical skill, 

intelligent reading, reproduction, typical errors in 

reading, tone (of voice in speaking), "swallowing" 

of words and syllables (i. e., indistinct utterances, 

faulty articulation). 

(6) Spelling — Tracing words and letters, copy- 
ing, dictation; characteristic errors. 

4. Arithmetic — Number series ; mechanical skill in use 
of numbers, oral and written arithmetic, number memory, 
ability to apply rules to the solution of problems. 

5. Writing — Small or capital letters, regularity of form. 

6. Singing — hearing, sense of rhythm, " music memory," 
fondness for music. 

7. Gymnastics — Strength, endurance; is he "social " in 
playing games ? 



52 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

8. History — Interest in persons and events; memory 
for same. 

9. Drawing — Mechanical and freehand drawing ; ability 
to measure with eye, neatness, accuracy. 

10. Geography — Sense of locaHty, ground principles 
of geography, reading of maps. 

1 1 . Natural history — Attitude when examining objects, 
knowledge of relation between structure and function. 

12. Manual Training — (Hand Arbeit). 

Kind, degree of skill shown, interest in the work. 

13. Conduct — legitimate scoldings or punishments. 

14. Industry and attention — home work, and other 
occupations. 

15. Absences — (a) excused. 

(b) not excused. 

(c) caused by illness. 

QUESTIONS — BRUSSELS AUXILIARY SCHOOLS 

Causes for examining a child: 

1. Insufficient or abnormal development. 

2. Continual and notoriously bad behaviour. 
Lack of power to attend : 

3. Three years behind in school. 

4. Serious defects of speech. 

The following documents must accompany this : 

1. Report of pupil's school career. 

2. Report on causes leading to proposal of child as 
candidate for admission to auxiliary school. This report 



ADMITTING PUPILS 53 

must contain answers (as full as possible) to the following 
list of questions : 

(a) State of health of parents. 
What about their inorals ? 
Are they addicted to drink? 
(6) Has child been ill ? 

Has he evinced any imperfections in the 
activity of the senses — sight, hearing, feeling, 
muscular sense? 

Is he given to self-abuse? 
In which study has he made most 
progress ? 
Is he attentive? Disobedient? 
Is his bad behaviour constant or periodic ? 
Does he steal ? Lie ? Is he rough ? 
To what sort of treatment (intellectual or 
educative in general) has the child been subjected ? 

QUESTIONS FROM LEIPSIC SCHOOL FOR WEAK-MINDED 

CHILDREN 

1. How many pupils in the school who are evidently 
feeble-minded ? 

2. How many children in first year are not to be promoted 
at Easter time from the lowest grade ? 

3. How many pupils attending for two years will not be 
promoted from lowest grade at Easter? 

4. Number of older pupils still in lower grades ? 

7. How many pupils coming under 2, 3, 4 are feeble 
minded ? 



54 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

B. In judging feeble-minded children keep in mind the 
following : 

1. Is child able to distinguish difference between right and 
left, and is he able to make movements in accordance with 
this idea? Can he recognize colour? 

2. What can you say concerning the degree of development 
of his power of speech ? Does he enunciate clearly, articulate 
clearly, speak distinctly and connectedly ? Can he repeat a 
short sentence without errors ? Does he omit words in so 
doing ? Is the order of words in the sentence confused ? 
Does he stutter? 

3. Is he able to distinguish between objects, and pictures 
of objects ? Is he able to describe simply objects at hand ? 
Can he follow you in a simple conversation ? Can he give 
information concerning objects not actually present to the 
senses ? 

4. Has he gained any knowledge at school? Of what 
sort? 

Can he recognize simple letters ? Is he able to read 
words at sight ? Does he know letters of different alphabets ? 

Is he able to write letters and words correctly from memory, 
or does he simply copy mechanically ? Does he do the latter 
correctly ? 

How far can he count forward ? backward ? and from 
what number? Can he add columns of figures? How 
many? Can he subtract? Has he any conception of 
multiplication or division ? 

To what extent is he able to work out simple oral problems 
without help ? Does he use his fingers in addition, etc ? 



ADMITTING PUPILS 



55 



5. Is he teachable, stubborn, good-natured, disagreeable, 
quiet, lively, sociable? 

ADMISSION BLANK — AUXILIARY SCHOOL AT PLAUEN 

is proposed for admission to 

auxiliary school. Pupil of school. 



Date and 
place of birth 



When and 

where did he 

first enter 

school? 



Time in 
present class 



Number of 

failures to be 

promoted 



Name and 

position 

of parents or 

guardians 



Last place of 
residence 



Religion 

Father 

Mother 

Child 

Vaccination. 

N. B. Underline terms which are most appropriate; 
add anything you deem important. 

General impression — mentally deficient, very deficient, 
imbecile. Dull, bright. 

Disposition — cheerful, tearful, unstable. 

Character — good-natured, true, honest, friendly, con- 
fidential, bold, eager, shy; disobedient, untrutliful, dis- 
honest, unsociable, fearful, lazy, impudent, inclined to truancy 
or vagrancy. 

Interest — Is it easy or difficult to arouse interest in him ? 
Does he show strong interest or little ? Does the amount of 
interest vary? What does he prefer? What does he 
neglect ? 



56 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Apprehension — quick, fleeting, uncertain, slow, clear or 
exact, definite. 

Memory — normal, weak, very weak. Intelligent or 
unintelligent observation. Quick or slow in recalling ideas. 
Confusion of ideas. 

Speech — normal, rapid, slow. Talkative; inclined to 
talk but little, or not at all ; sensible ; foolish. Stammering. 

Development — Began to talk at years of age; to 

walk at 

Movements — Gait. . . . ; arm and hand movements. . . . ; 
hurried, awkward, dexterous, left-handed. 

Degree of skill attained at school. 

(N. B. Underline in black, letters he can read; in red, 

those which he can write.) 

1. Reading: 

2. Writing: a, o, u, e, i; — 1, m, n, r; — h, ch, j; v, f ; 
— s, ss, sch; — a, 6, ii; — b, d, g; — p, t, k; — x, z; — 
qu — ng; — ai, au, au; — ei, eu, y; — o, o, A, A; — G. 
Q; — S, Sch, R, N, M; — V, W, P, Z, U; — T, J; — K, 
F; — L, B; — H, E; — D; — X, Y, C. 

3. Arithmetic. 

How far can he count forward ? 
From what number can he count backward 
correctly ? 

How far can he add 1 + 1, etc. } 
From what numbers can he subtract 1 ? 
What can you say concerning his idea of number ? 
What other operations has he mastered ? 
Home — Who looks after child at home ? 



ADMITTING PUPILS 57 

Has any change been made in the method of bringing 
up the child ? 

State the nature of this change. 

What can you say concerning his physical welfarel 
concerning his education ? 

Physical — Absences excused or unexcused during school 
year. 

Long absence weeks due to 

Suffers from headaches, nausea, and vomiting, bowel 
trouble, general langour (often falls asleep in class), 
sleeplessness, epilepsy; dizziness, involuntary twitching 
of muscles. (These hinder pupil in following the class 
work.) 

Short-sighted, cross-eyed, hard of hearing, chronic 
inflamamation of eyelids, discharge from ears (right or left), 
chronic nasal catarrh, enlarged tonsils. 

His poor condition may be due to inherit- 
ance, accidents at birth, fall, fright, illness. He has 
suffered from rickets, eclampsia, epilepsy, various brain 
diseases, measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, inflammation 
of the lungs, whooping cough, persistent skin disorders. 

The child is the first, last or of its parents; a twin. 

Of brothers and sisters still living, 

were found to be feebly endowed; are not yet old 

enough to leave school; are behind in their work. 

Of who died, were not bright, 

mentally weak. They died at the age of from 

Of parents and other near relatives are not gifted 

mentally; suffer from tuberculosis; from 



58 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

syphilis from various mental disorders;. 

from alcoholism. 

Summary of above 

Plauen, date 

Director Teacher 

School stamp 

AUXILIARY SCHOOL AT HALLE 



Number in chief school register , is proposed for 

admission to this auxiliary school. 

Born on as ... .legitimate child of 

dead living 

In care of residence 

Baptized not baptized. 

Vaccinated not vaccinated. 

At school since ; ... .years in grade of 

intermediate school, under , teacher. 

Remarks of school principal. 

Opinion of school principal and physician of auxiliary 
school. 

Decision of city superintendent regarding child's 
admission 

(N. B. Question 1, 2, 3 to be answered after visiting 
child's home; 4, 5, to be answered at three different periods 
in the school year. Each series of observations must be 
submitted to the principal for examination when completed.) 

Standpoints from which these observations should be made : 



ADMITTING PUPILS 



59 



1. What has been learned concerning the child's parents — 
home conditions, their care of the child, number of visits to 
the home ? 

2. What information have parents imparted concerning 
the child ? (Illnesses, accidents, number of visits made.) 

3. What physical defects are easily noted — special 
reference to sense organs and muscular movements? 



OBSERVATIONS 



4. Has mental development been 

generally satisfactory ? 

Speech — fluent, defective . . . . 

Interest in lessons 

Weakness or unsteadiness of 

attention 

Memory 

Striking characteristics 

Affect of school work 

5. Condition of school work 

Backward in what subjects . . . 
Progress made in arithmetic, 

reading, and writing 



To week 

before 
vacation 



To Dec. 1 



To Feb. 1 



Comparison of the foregoing will bring to our 
notice the following: The questions are largely 
of a psychological and pedagogical nature, owing 
to the fact that they must be answered by teachers. 
But these questions must be so framed that they 



60 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

will call for repeated observations of the child's 
peculiarities; furthermore, they must admit of 
being answered briefly. Lastly, anyone who reads 
the answers should be able to get at once a fair 
idea of the child's development before he reaches 
school age. 

The question sheet in use at Halle (worked 
out by auxiliary school teachers and Dr. Maennel 
himself) has been tested there for a number of 
years. At the commencement of every school 
year, a copy is placed in the hands of every primary 
and intermediate teacher, who begins observations 
on her pupils at once. If a child shows evidence 
of being abnormal, the teacher begins to note 
his peculiarities; these notes are examined by 
the principal. 

Shortly before Easter time, approved appli- 
cations from all schools are sent to the head of 
the city school administration; he, in turn, often 
seeks the advice and opinion of physicians and 
of the auxiliary school principal — all this must 
be done before any pupil is admitted formally 
into the auxiliary schools. 

Usually about fifty applications are presented 
each year. After consultation with the principal 
of the auxiliary school, twenty or thirty of these 
are usually returned, marked "to remain in 



ADMITTING PUPILS 61 

the Volksschule" or *'to be proposed again a 
year hence." 

Naturally, these rejected applications are not 
welcomed by either teacher or principal, both 
of whom were anxious, no doubt, to rid themselves 
of a "troublesome" pupil. 

The pupils whose applications are granted are 
removed to the auxiliary school at Easter time. 

Let us now note the method of procedure at 
Mannheim. From personal observation, I can 
state that the admission of candidates (at Mann- 
heim) is rather more difficult than at Halle. 

In 1899, the city superintendent at Mannheim, 
Dr. Sickinger, endeavoured to classify all pupils 
of the Volksschule according to their ability; and 
to employ a great number of parallel classes 
of each school grade, in forming "instruction 
groups," each possessing a peculiar character 
of its own. As a result, the school has three 
different divisions, each having its own course 
of study. In fact, three kinds of classes may be 
noted. 

1. For normal pupils, who are capable, after 
seven years' work, of reaching the highest class 
— these form the highest department, having 
eight grades. 

2. For pupils, who, owing to deficient ability. 



62 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

can not be promoted, a special department is 
established; simpler work is followed here. 

This department, with its special classes (called 
"repetition" classes), naturally does not aim to 
advance pupils to the same degree as normal 
pupils are advanced; a certain limit is set however. 
These last special classes are often called "finish- 
ing" classes. 

In these classes opportunity is afforded for pupils 
to return to regular grades ; any teacher who finds 
himself inclined to make careful observations will 
find abundant opportunity to individualize. The 
classes are small in register — about thirty pupils 
— and what the author terms "successive" 
("group work.?") instruction enables the teacher 
to know his pupils intimately. Pupils are divided 
into two groups — the weaker, and the stronger; 
instruction is sometimes given to both sections 
at once, sometimes to each group separately. 

Thus Sections A and B receive 13 hours instruc- 
tion together (3 religion, 7 German, 2 arithmetic, 
1 singing) ; Section A and B, separate instruc- 
tion, 6 J hours each (4| German, 2 arithmetic). 
Each section receives instruction the first hour 
for three days per week. 

Pupils are not transferred to these special 
classes until the teacher has filled out a "transfer 



ADMITTING PUPILS 



63 



card" as follows: (This form has been found 
of great service). 



VOLKSSCHULE AT MANNHEIM — SPECIAL CLASSES 



EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF CHILD IN 
SPECIAL CLASSES 


TRANSFER CARD 


When? 


Whither ? 


To be transferred to a ... . class 


School 
Year 


Date 


Division of 
School 


Special 
Class 


School year, 1907-1908 
School division 
Now in class 


19— 
19— 
19— 
19— 








Present teacher 



1. Personal history of pupil. 

Name. 

Birth, (date). 

Place of birth. 

Religion. 

Father, mother or guardian. 

Residence. 

2. Facts concerning child's parents. 

Both parents still living ? 

Has child a stepmother, stepfather ? Is father only 
living ? Mother only ? Is child an orphan ? Under 
whose care.'' 

Are child's education and care neglected ? 

3. Previous school record. 

Has it attended the present school only? 



64 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Did the child come from eleswhere — from what 
school ? What class ? 

What about its attendance? Was it regular? 
If irregular, why ? 

4. The child's backwardness. 

In what classes was child " left back ? " 
(Tell briefly in what lessons its work was poor, or 
unsatisfactory.) 

5. Cause of child's deficiency. 

Lack of talent? 

Want of application ? 

Other reasons — illness, transfers, home conditions. 

6. Former illnesses. 

Fits? dizziness? St. Vitus's Dance? brain 
diseases ? accidents to head ? rickets ? diphtheria ? 
measles ? scarlet fever ? whooping cough ? etc. 

7. Physical peculiarities and signs of degeneration. 

Signs of paralysis ? headaches ? speech ? sight ? 
smell ? glandular swellings ? muscular twitchings ? 
spinal curvature? malformation of the limbs? 
chronic diseases ? 

8. Personal habits, etc. 

Cleanly ? attentive ? good natured ? sociable ? 
untruthful ? inclined to steal ? dull ? excitable ? 
sensitive ? passionate ? moody ? shy ? lazy ? 
imaginative ? forgetful ? superficial ? etc. 

9. Special aptitudes and abilities. 

Singing? Writing? Arithmetic? Drawing? 
Manual Training ? 



ADMITTING PUPILS 

10. Grade of work (school work) attained. 



65 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


School year . . . 

Class 

Teacher 


190- 


19- 


19- 


19- 


19- 


19— 


19— 


19- 


Register 

Location 


















Industry 

Conduct 

German 

Number 



















(The grade attained by pupil is to be registered here. It 
therefore stands for the child's past school experience, as 
well as for the future. For past terms, entry is to be made at 
the time of pupils' transfer from regular class to auxiliary 
class ; for future, entries are to be made at close of each school 
year. In case pupil is returned to regular class, note to that 
effect is to be made.) 

3. It sometimes happens that a pupil of the 
lower "repetition" class cannot receive much 
benefit from the instruction there given, because 
he is mentally deficient; when this occurs, the 
pupil is transferred to an auxiliary school class 
(after an examination by the school physician) ; 
in 1904-1905, four such classes existed in 
Mannheim, registering 67 pupils. 

Judging from the small number of auxiliary 



66 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

classes, we come to the following conclusion: 
According to the method followed at Mannheim, 
many pupils are left in the "repetition" classes, 
and in the regular school, who at Halle and other 
places would have been sent to auxiliary schools 
at once. In the auxiliary classes at Mannheim, 
therefore, we find pupils whose mental depelop- 
ment is of a very low order — and yet, we cannot 
say that idiots are admitted to these classes. It 
seems to me that the method followed at Mannheim 
tends to change entirely the previous method of 
admission to auxiliary school classes. 

Possibly the schools at Mannheim are the first 
to admit to auxiliary classes only those pupils 
who belong there of right. However, when aux- 
iliary schools were established at Mannheim the 
local institutions for idiots lost a number of their 
inmates — those who were capable of taking some 
degree of training. According to regulations, 
the auxiliary schools (at Mannheim) are not to 
admit pupils who (though of inferior mental 
development, to be sure) are capable of being 
trained at all — these are still to remain in the 
Volksschule (in "repetition" classes as outlined 
above) . 

Time will prove whether the plan followed at 
Mannheim will exert any strong or lasting influence 



ADMITTING PUPILS 67 

on that hitherto followed. At any rate, th» 
matter deserves careful attention — admission to 
auxiliary school classes can scarcely receive too 
much care. Just as we would avoid sending to 
auxiliary schools children who are imbeciles or 
idiots — or the blind, deaf-mutes, or the morally 
depraved — so, too, must we most carefully avoid 
admitting children who are backward by reason 
of illness, etc., and yet cannot be called 
abnormal. 

So much for the plan of admission. It would 
be well for the children recommended for auxiliary 
schools if, while still in the Volksschule, they did not 
constantly hear, "Oh, well, in the auxiliary 
school, among the stupids, you won't be obliged 
to learn anything!" The disfavour often bestowed 
on auxiliary schools can readily be understood, 
if the auxiliary school has been lightly regarded, 
nay, even ridiculed, and regarded as a sort of 
"Siberia" by school people themselves. 

Many parents realize to some extent what the 
auxiliary schools will do for their children, but 
they scarcely appreciate its great value — there- 
fore many object to placing their children in 
these schools. Parental pride and misunder- 
standings must be overcome. When school 
authorities raise suspicion that the children are 



68 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

not in their "right minds" — when neighbors 
hint of "dumb" schools or "crazy" schools to 
which they would never send their children — 
then all the advice of school people and physicians 
is in vain — vanity and false pride stand in the way. 

Parents' consent should be sought before pupils 
are admitted to auxiliary schools. The stubborn- 
ness of some parents makes us wish that we could 
compel them by law to place their children in 
auxiliary schools — children who are known to 
be defective. 

The fourth session of the German Auxiliary 
School Association (held in 1903) took up this 
matter at length, and the following resolution 
was taken : " Compulsion should be used — but 
only when parents utterly refuse to have their 
children admitted to the auxiliary school, and 
are not able to prove that such children are already 
receiving satisfactory training and instruction 
elsewhere." Compulsion should be used only 
when there is sufficient proof, also, that the child 
is mentally defective. The question could be 
satisfactorily settled if the questions on entrance 
sheets and transfer cards had been carefully 
answered. 

Uniformity in admitting pupils to the auxiliary 
schools of each community should be sought for. 



ADMITTING PUPILS 69 

It will not always be necessary to give a child 
one or two years' trial in the regular school ere 
he is sent to the auxiliary school. By the time 
the child reaches the so-called "school age" it 
is perfectly feasible to make a more or less complete 
diagnosis of his normal or abnormal development. 
Naturally, this decision is one to be made by a 
physician rather than by a teacher. Many 
children show sure signs of feeble-mindedness 
at a very early age: it would be a great wrong to 
send such pupils to the regular schools, for, from 
the very first, they belong naturally to the auxiliary 
school, and time spent in the regular school would 
be irretrievably lost. 



IV 

THE PARENTS, AND THE ENVIRONMENT OF AUX- 
LIARY SCHOOL PUPILS (BEFORE AND DURING 
ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL) 

Er US take it for granted, then, that the newly 
admitted pupils are left in the auxiliary 
schools with the consent of their parents — the 
question arises — " What sort of work is to be done ?" 
Teachers of auxiliary school classes must make 
careful observations concerning the physical and 
mental status of their pupils. In order to know his 
pupils aright, the teacher must become acquainted 
with their parents and their home surroundings. 

The principal of an auxiliary school should 
seek this information from two sources. 

I. He should apply to the official information 
bureau of the city's poor department for all 
possible information concerning his pupils and 
their environment. On the whole, this sort of 
information may be depended upon. 

The following type reports may serve as 
examples : 

70 



ENVIRONMENT OF PUPILS 71 

1. N. N. (followed by dates of birth of parents 
and children) was punished in 1888 by two weeks' 
imprisonment; again in 1899, for fraud — one 
day's imprisonment: in 1901, one day, disorderly 
conduct; reputation — bad. Associates with a 
married woman, living apart from her husband. 
There is one child — an idiot — who has been 
placed in an asylum at Neinstedter. The wife 
bears a good reputation ; has been ill for some time 
— cancer. Child's environment could scarcely 
be worse. 

2. N. N. (dates follow as above) has been 
punished several times on account of petty offences. 
Since 1902, he has been an inmate of the insane 
asylum at Alt-Scherbitz. Wife was punished in 
1882, for breaking certain police regulations — 
otherwise of good repute. 

Many times the parents are in very poor cir- 
cumstances; but in spite of this, they manage 
somehow to keep themselves and their children 
(often numerous) with assistance from either 
public or private charities. In other cases — 
and there are many such — the parents are 
addicted to strong drink, dislike work, lead 
immoral lives, or have come into frequent touch 
with the strong arm of the law. 



n AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

II. When some information has been gained in 
this way (through the public information bureaus) 
the mothers of the auxiliary school pupils are 
invited to call at the office of the principal. Of 
course there are always some mothers who pay 
no attention to such an invitation ; but the greater 
number appear and take time to converse with 
the principal. The conversation (the class teacher 
is usually present also) follows as closely as 
possible the plan on the following page. 

When the teacher has secured this sort of 
information concerning her pupils, she has a 
good foundation for her work; and she will find 
it of great service in her dealings with the children. 

When the parents fail to respond to the 
principal's cordial invitation, matters proceed 
much more slowly; much must be left to chance 
— the teacher experiments and endeavours to 
learn all he can concerning the pupil. At Halle, 
I may state, that results have been very satis- 
factory on the whole. Certain parents, to be sure, 
endeavoured to preserve a dignified silence con- 
cerning certain significant facts in their lives, 
to place themselves, perhaps, in a better light 
before me — but, immediately upon learning that 
I was in possession of certain information — 
from official records — they grew more frank. 



ENVIRONMENT OF PUPILS 



73 



Congenital lualformations 
— harelip, malformations of 
palate, ears, limbs; defective 
sense organs, hydrocephalus, 
paralysis, etc. 



Physical defects — spinal 
curvature, lameness, convul- 
sive movements, defective or 
abnormal formation of skull, 
limbs, etc. 



The skin — moist or dry, 
flabby; sensitiveness; ill- 
smelling secretions, covered 
with hair. 



(a) Eyes — squint, par- 
aylsis of lids, defects of 
cornea and iris, quivering, 
defects of pupils, short or 
weak-sightedness . 



(b) Ears. Discharges - 
hearing. 



(c) The nose. The air 
passages, purulent dis- 
charges, etc. 



(d) The organs of 
speech. Lips, teeth, tongue, 
gums; hypertrophied ton- 
sils, other abnormal 
growths. 



Speech defects. 



How do parents account for the 
mental deficiency of this child ? 



Home conditions. Is child of 
legitimate or illegitimate birth.'' 
Has it a stepmother ? Stepfather ? 
Father only ? Mother only ? Are 
parents separated ? Is child an or- 
phan ? Under whose care ? Does 
child receive proper care, or does 
it suffer from neglect ? 



Record ]5ook. No. 



Full name of child. 



2. o p 0,0 g-o : 






n 



P 



- w n I-* 
n ^ ^ S.r, "Z 

^p n 5 6-;^ 



■Orq tr2. 



Names. 



Sex. 



General health, deaths, 
cause of death — age at 
death. 



Is this the first, second, 
third, etc., child ? 



n 


tion CO 
relation 
nature 


eases, 
nervou 
ders am 
relative 
rents. ( 


n 
3 




ncernmg 

ship and 

of dis- 




It 


P_ 




3^2 


Si 


0- 




P Eji P 


7^ 


T 



O B'O B 

^ B P Cr 



t^3. 3 o <^ 



Defects of development in 
early years. At what age did 
child learn to walk ? To talk ? 
Irregularities in teething, etc. 



Illnesses experienced before 
attaining school age. Their 
course and duration. ^Rick- 
ets, scrofula, brain disorders, 
scarlet fever, diphtheria, etc. 



Accidents — especially in- 
juries to head, as result of 
kick, blow, or fall. 



74 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Many facts concerning their home lives were 
told with sorrow, or merely hinted at; some- 
times, I was able to anticipate answers — out of 
sympathy with those questioned. In many cases, 
the mothers entered the "hard school of life" 
when they married, but they struggled like 
heroines against their daily trials. Often at the 
close of the conference, I felt the desire to render 
more substantial assistance than mere words of 
encouragement and advice. It goes without say- 
ing, that the information secured by this means 
should be held as sacred. 

The following cases are given as types: 
1. Agnes W. — the stepdaughter of a turner. 
Her father, a drunkard, died of convulsions. 
The mother remarried — another drunkard — 
from whom she was separated at the end of four 
years. When Agnes was admitted to the aux- 
iliary school, the stepfather was serving a four 
months' term of imprisonment for attempted 
robbery. Before this time, he had appeared in 
court several times for disorderly conduct, begging, 
etc The mother, though still unpunished, is 
by no means of good repute, according to the 
opinion of the authorities. Her responses to 
my questions did not, however, give any impres- 
sion of rudeness. She had had five children — 



ENVIRONMENT OF PUPILS 75 

three of whom died in convulsions at an early 
age. The youngest child, Agnes, learned to 
walk and to talk at four years. She has had 
measles, and evidently has scrofula. She was 
formerly afflicted with convulsions — some traces 
still remain — namely, a twitching of the head. 
Her speech is also defective. 

2. Otto and Paul M. — brothers. Their 
father, a man who had worked only occasionally, 
died of tuberculosis. Of twelve children (Otto 
and Paul the ninth and tenth respectively), the 
mother lost five — partly as the result of con- 
vulsions — partly from lack of vitality. Very 
likely the two youngest children (girls) will have 
to be sent to an auxiliary school sooner or later. 
Otto and Paul suffered in early childhood from 
measles — dentition was slow and painful. Their 
education and training have been sadly neglected, 
owing to the fact that the mother was obliged 
to go to work daily to support herself and her 
children. One of the boys has a very defective 
gait — the other a serious defect in speech. 
Extreme poverty is largely responsible for the 
abnormal mental development of these boys. 

Many similiar cases might be cited. We learn 
of consanguineous marriages, of great differences 
between the ages of parents, or again of nervous 



76 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

disorders among the parents' near relatives. 
Occasionally the child's deficiency can be traced 
to prenatal causes — accidents, etc. Sometimes 
the poor mother cannot tell exactly how many 
children she has borne — often a dozen or more. 
The vital energy of these children is extremely 
low; even when fully normal in development, 
they easily become later victims to all sorts of 
developmental defects and contagious diseases. 
In large families, where the care of children is 
often neglected, defective development can be 
traced to falling out of bed, or downstairs, or out 
of a carriage. Finally, alcoholism and syphilis 
also leave their impressions on children — in the 
shape of defective development — a fact known 
even to laymen. 

Naturally all of this knowledge concerning a 
defective pupil cannot be gathered at once. It 
is the result of constant care and observation, 
but every additional fact is an aid. 

Visits of teachers to the homes of the pupils 
cannot be recommended too often; they are 
doubly important when the mother does not 
come to school. Tact on the part of the teacher 
is a prime necessity; she must also learn to bring 
up the proper questions at the proper time. 
Experience will soon teach her how to obtain the 



ENVIRONMENT OF PUPILS 77 

necessary details. Among other things, she must 
learn if the child receives proper nourishment; 
his hours of retiring and rising; whether he is 
forced to work after school hours; does alcohol 
play any part in his development ? Of course 
all of these questions may not be necessary in 
every case. Observation will often suggest the 
needful ones. For instance, a languid, listless 
appearing child will suggest a question con- 
cerning the child's sleep. The teacher finds 
that the child is employed after school in folding 
papers — so he misses the invigorating effects 
of play in the open air. The teacher also 
learns that the child is obliged to share his bed 
with tw^o others — one older, one younger than 
himself. 

A report such as the above arouses the interest 
of all in regard to the outside work of pupils 
and conditions under which they sleep; this 
results, perhaps, in a general inquiry based on 
the following questions: 

Does the child sleep alone ? 

(State age and sex of bed-fellows.) 

How many persons sleep in the same room ? 

Is it possible to use another room ? 

Does the child see his father before going to 
school ? 



78 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Does the mother prepare a warm drink for 
breakfast ? 

Does the child do outside work either before 
or after school ? 

At what time does he retire ? 

At what time does he arise? 

The resulting answers — vague and unreliable 
as many of them always are — give us some 
information at least concerning the environment 
of our pupils; they serve to place the work of the 
auxiliary school teacher under the head of "home 
missions," perhaps. But to make a success of 
the work, one must be thoroughly acquainted 
with the conditions surrounding the child. 



THE HEALTH OF AUXILIARY SCHOOL PUPILS 

IN addition to securing information concerning 
the home surroundings of the pupils before 
their admission to an auxiliary school, we 
must learn all we can concerning their physical 
development. This is done largely through the 
efforts of the school physician. This is not the 
time nor the place to discuss the need of school 
physicians; the question is rather to decide on 
the position and duties of the physician. At 
Halle, we deemed a physician necessary, though 
the many polyclinics of the University had done 
excellent service for years and were capable of 
continuing such service. 

The duties of the school physician at Halle, 
(an office created four years ago) are regulated 
by an order drawn up by the author and approved 
by the city council. It reads thus: 

Duties of Auxiliary School Physician at Halle 
1. It shall be the duty of the physician to 
exercise a careful oversight, not only on the 

79 



80 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

conditions of the school, but also on the health 
of pupils. 

2. All children admitted to this auxiliary school 
must receive a careful physical examination as 
soon as possible after their admission to the 
school (not later than three weeks at most). 
This examination must be repeated every three 
months. 

3. The results of the examination stated above 
are recorded on a specially printed form which 
is to accompany the child from grade to grade 
until he is discharged from the school. Should 
a child stand in need of special treatment, the 
fact is noted upon his record card. This record, 
properly filled out and numbered (the number 
corresponding to the child's register number), is 
placed on file in the principal's ofiice, where it 
may be examined by the teachers or physician 
of the auxiliary school. 

4. In addition to making periodic examinations 
of pupils, the school physician is required to 
make weekly visits to the school. The principal 
in turn must notify his teachers of the physician's 
presence in the school, and teachers are requested 
at such times to place before the physician the 
results of their observations — especially such 
as call for medical advice. 



HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 81 

The hours for consultation with the physician 
are determined upon by the principal and physician 
in conference. 

5. Pupils are not treated by the school physician 

— on the contrary — the parents are informed 
by printed notices (which must bear the principal's 
signature) that the child should be placed under 
the care of the family physician or taken to a 
polyclinic for treatment. 

6. Should the physician advise the temporary 
exclusion of the pupil from school, or a limited 
time of study, or a resort to other curative measures 

— he must arrange the matter with the principal 
of the school, who will see that the physician's 
orders are carried out. 

7. At the close of every school year, the school 
physician (after conference with the principal) 
must present a report to the authorities; he must 
present a brief outline of his work as medical 
supervisor, calling attention to any special cases 
and any means by which success was attained. 

8. When the school physician is prevented by 
any means from visiting the school, report must 
be made at once to the authorities, and a com- 
petent substitute will be appointed. Three 
months' notice must be given before the contract 
with the authorities can be declared void. 



82 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

9. The authorities retain the right to alter or 
extend the duties of the school physician, with 
the consent of the school board. 

In accordance with the above, every pupil is 
examined (at least once a year) in the presence 
of the class teacher. The examination takes place 
in the principal's oflBce, or in some unoccupied 
room in the building. The results of the medical 
examination are recorded on a specially prepared 
record, which holds good for the entire course. 

It is arranged thus: 

HEALTH RECORD 

of , son, 

daughter of 

Born — (give date) 

Vaccinated 

Vaccinated second time. 

In school since 

(Explanation) 

Columns, 1, 3, 4, 9, 10 and the head of the sheet must be 
filled in by the teacher; the remaining columns by the 
physician. 

Columns 3, 4 must be filled in every six months. (Correct 
to ^ centimetre and | kilogram respectively.) 

Remaining columns to be filled by school physician when 
pupil enters school — (columns 5 and 8, only when it is held 
to be necessary) but later when child's development shows 
changes. 



HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 



83 



In column 2 — for perfect health, record " good " ; in case 
of tendency to disease or chronic disease, " bad "; otherwise, 
"medium." 



1 


2 

c 

1) -' 
O 


3 

01 

li 

S 
X 


4 

..1 


5 


6 


7 


8 





10 


s 


3 

C8 

01 

s 

7) 


(a) Breast 
abdomen, 

(b) spinal 
column ex- 
tremities 

(c) skin dis- 
eases, par- 
asites 


(a) eyes 
keen-sight- 
edness 

(b) ears, 
hearing 

(c) mouth 
nose, 
speech 


Observations 
of physician 
Suggestions 
for treat- 
ment in 
School. 

S igns of 
disease? 


Word sent 
to parents 
on 


Comments 
Made by 
teachers 



If any child shows the need of special medical 
treatment, the parents are informed by the prin- 
cipal. The following is the form of notice sent 
(by mail). In most cases, we have had satisfactory 
results. 

As a result of an examination, your child 

was found to be suffering from For the sake 

of the child's health, as well as for the good of the school it is 
necessary that 

Halle 

To 

Rector. 

In most cases, the parents have carried out the 
advice of the physician, and the children in 
question have been placed in clinical institutions 
or under medical care. 

During the school year, the physician collects 



84 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

data full of interest to the people at large as well 
as to himself. He is required to publish this 
information in an annual report. One of these 
has recently appeared in a daily newspaper at 
Halle; with the consent of its author, I am 
permitted to cite the following: 

*'The two lower classes of the auxiliary school 
registers 47 pupils between the ages of seven and 
nine. Of this number 21, or about 45%, were 
in poor health, and only 5 — or about 10% — in 
perfect health. Among children between 11 and 
14 years of age, there was the reverse proportion. 
While but 2 of the 47 children above showed no 
constitutional defects, those in the last school 
year showed a proportion of 13 out of 21." 

A more convincing statement concerning the 
physical defects of auxiliary school pupils is 
found in the following: 

**On the whole, out of the 215 pupils in attend- 
ance at the auxiliary school in Halle during 1901, 
only 57 are free from defects — even w hen we 
overlook such defects as slight difficulties of 
speech, diseases or irregularities of the teeth, 
slight nervous troubles, etc." 

In the school year of 1903-1904, the results 
were not so good. Out of 207 pupils, 11 girls 
and 15 boys were found to be in good condition. 



HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 85 

Care in measuring and weighing helps to give 
a clear insight into defective physical development. 
For measuring height, the authorities have placed 
at the disposal of the physician a simple but very 
useful piece of apparatus. A scale with a sliding 
weight is used to determine weight. 

Of the aforementioned 47 pupils (7-9 years), 
30 fell below the average in height and 31 below 
the average in weight. Very few reached the 
average — few^er still exceeded it. 

The physician's careful examination sometimes 
discloses conditions concerning which the parents 
were ignorant. In many cases, the physician 
renders advice which, if followed, may lead to 
a permanent cure of certain ailments. 

In difficult cases, the school physician was 
often assisted by other city physicians, who were 
so interested in the work, that they gladly placed 
their knowledge and skill at the disposal of the 
little patients. How often, for example, did 
we call in a busy oculist, who never refused to 
aid us. At his suggestion many of the pupils 
were provided with glasses — the expense borne 
by the city. We noted with satisfaction a decided 
improvement in the development of these children. 

Similiarly, an aurist and throat specialist 
became interested in our work — many cases 



86 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

of swollen tonsils, adenoid growths, etc., received 
attention at his hands. In the principal's office, 
at Halle, we have photographs of pupils taken 
"before" and "after" such operations, in order 
to show the excellent outcome of these; in many 
cases the excessive dullness of certain pupils 
may be traced to the presence of these growths. 

The removal of tonsils and adenoid growths, 
does not always, however, result in restoring 
auxiliary pupils to the normal; if defects exist 
in the great central nervous system, we cannot 
reckon on mental development to any great 
extent. In many cases, however, the removal of 
these abnormal growths relieves the child of 
headaches, hardness of hearing, or a peculiar nasal 
quality of speech. 

The auxiliary school physician meets most 
frequently with all sorts of nervous disorders — 
(from extreme excitability to the more serious 
forms of nervous troubles) — it is therefore of 
great importance that he should be somewhat 
of a neurologist. Owing to the recognized dif- 
ficulty of making accurate diagnoses, and the 
numerous forms of nervous disorders, it is highly 
important that the school physician should have 
the aid of a nerve specialist in his work. 

At H^lle, we were fortunate ia securing the 



HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 87 

assistance of a university professor who rendered 
assistance to our school physician, and who 
treated children suffering from epilepsy, paralysis, 
or chorea. 

Children's teeth also need attention and care. 
A healthy condition of the teeth is needed as 
well to secure good digestion as to assist in speech. 

It goes without saying that in addition to his 
professional supervision, the school physician 
proved a blessing to the school. Improper diet, 
improper methods of treating pupils, have given 
way to better conditions in compliance with his 
advice and counsel. 

It is to be hoped that other places, in the neigh- 
bourhood of forests especially, will follow the 
example of Charlottenberg — that of taking 
children to the forests for instruction — not merely 
children in need of rest, but auxiliary school 
pupils especially. 

The duties of the auxiliary school physician, 
the numerous dfemands upon his time and atten- 
tion, his relation to teachers and principal, may 
be deduced from what has just preceded. Of 
course the authorities will appoint to auxiliary 
schools only such men as are interested in child 
study or school hygiene. It is often a difficult 
matter to secure the services of an experienced 



88 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

physician — hence the great number of young 
men in auxiliary school positions. Concerning 
the requirements of such men, Prof. Griesbach 
says: *'He must have an accurate knowledge 
of the human body; must have spent considerable 
time in the study of hygiene; he must be a medical 
man who possesses a thorough knowledge of 
hygiene. He should attend pedagogic lectures; 
should he teach in the higher institutions of 
learning, he should attend pedagogical seminaries, 
Oberrealschulen, and Gymnasien, and be required 
to give model lessons exactly as a candidate for 
teacher's licence is required to do. Besides being 
a purely medical man, he must be able to teach 
medicine — then he will be of great service to 
his school in both a pedagogical and medical way, 
and thus exert an enormous influence for good 
over his pupils." 

Griesbach lays great stress on the knowledge 
of hygiene, and rightly so. But a knowledge 
of psychology and psychiatry are also needed. 
Perhaps Griesbach lays too much stress on the 
physician's knowledge of pedagogy — it were 
better if he were an excellent physician. No one 
will call into question the many-sidedness of his 
training, nor will any one regard his work as 
unimportant. As soon as a physician understands 



HEALTH OF THE PUPILS 89 

that the teacher's purpose is to improve the 
physical condition of the pupils as well as the 
mental, he will at once lend his aid to that end. 

Is it ever necessary for a physician to advise 
with the school principal concerning the length 
of recitations, the number of recesses, the order 
of lessons in the programme, etc. ? It is to be 
supposed that all such matters will receive just 
consideration. 

Another sort of work may demand the notice 
of the school physician. Let us suppose, that 
a certain community (because of lack of funds 
to improve) has declared certain rooms fit for 
the use of auxiliary school pupils, though from 
the teacher's standpoint the room is unsuitable 
for many reasons. Should the physician's report 
agree with that of the teacher, or should he report 
the matter to the proper authorities ? His word 
often carries great weight; and so in his capacity 
as a physician, he accomplishes what the teacher, 
perhaps, has been unable to do. 



VI 



THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL PUPIL AND HIS 
CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS 

THE teacher of a regular class who, perhaps, 
comes into contact with his pupils merely 
as their instructor, is seldom concerned with such 
questions as "How does the subject-matter pre- 
sented affect the pupil ?" and *' What interest does 
he take in his school work?" Should the teacher 
desire to answer these questions fully to his own 
satisfaction, it would be necessary for him to deal 
with each pupil separately as an individual. In 
order to do this, however, the teacher must be 
"psychologically inclined" as Alternberg says. 
The teacher's ideals are often too easily dispelled 
by the vast amount of work to be covered, and 
the large classes assigned to his care. He is 
therefore often forced to make all sorts of com- 
promises, as it were. In time, he accustoms 
himself to certain routine, and treats much of 
his work in a purely mechanical way; he becomes 
an adept, too, in presenting results which seem 

90 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 91 

eminently satisfactory to the lay mind. Gradually 
he relinquishes all his ideals, and becomes a 
"mere mechanic," as it were, in matters 
educational. 

Teachers of this type must be kept out of the 
auxiliary schools. Neither the number of subjects 
to be taught, nor the number of pupils assigned 
to his care, must ever cause a teacher to view all 
his pupils from this standpoint. In the auxiliary 
school, the pupils must be judged and rated 
according to the principles of psychology by one 
who thoroughly understands psychology — in 
other words, careful observations of every pupil 
must be made and recorded; these to form a 
sort of "characterization" of him, as it were. 

It may be held by some, that the teacher can 
form a fair estimate of a pupil's ability by means 
of the various records prepared before the child'* 
admission to the auxiliary school. It is true 
that a fair knowledge of the child's physicial and 
mental peculiarities may be obtained from these 
statements — but this is not sufficient for an 
auxiliary school record. How shall we proceed, 
then, to obtain the correct knowledge .? And how 
shall we record the child's development ? 

In Leipzig, a very simple plan is followed — 
the child is photographed. This plan of making 



92 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

a record of the child's appearance at the beginning 
and at the end of his school course, is worthy of 
note. To this day, I can distinctly recall one 
lad, who, upon admission to the auxiliary school 
at Halle, was almost devoid of the power of 
speech, and who showed other signs of neglect 
at home; his peculiar appearance led us to 
photograph him. Some years later, his appear- 
ance had altered so much, that a second photograph 
seemed to portray an entirely different person. 
Photography, we decided, tells a brief yet eloquent 
story of the pupil's development. 

For years, "reports" were considered all- 
sufficient in describing and characterizing pupils. 
In many cases, the teacher's estimate of a pupil 
was given in a semi-annual "figure" or rating, 
intended to show the mental, moral and intellectual 
growth of the pupil. But can figures show 
this.? Their inadequacy has been shown again 
and again; but tradition has proved so strong 
that teachers seem loathe to relinquish this 
method — waiting figures is so easy. 

At Halle, we planned a sort of school register, 
which aimed to set aside all use of figures in 
determining the mental growth of our pupils; 
we proposed to use concrete expressions in record- 
ing the teacher's experiences and observations. 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 93 

This record was designed to accompany the 
pupil throughout his entire school career; the 
teacher is required to report semi-annually on 
the conduct, attention and interest of his pupils, 
and upon their skill in oral and written expression ; 
striking peculiarities are also made note of, 
together with a record of special progress in the 
various subjects of study. Even this record has 
been found by experience to be more or less 
inadequate. Naturally the question arises, "Can 
the observant teacher characterize a pupil in 
terms that may help another person to form a 
fairly accurate estimate of such pupil ?" As 
a general rule, the simpler the record, the 
more valuable it becomes, and the more cer- 
tain we are that it will be properly filled by the 
teacher. 

After all is said and done, the auxiliary school 
teacher is usually full of interest and enthusiasm 
in his work; if, however, that work constantly 
increases in complexity, his interest may wane, 
and as a result, his work w^ill lose some of its 
higher quality and tend to degenerate into the 
purely mechanical. (Maennel uses the expression, 
"idealism degenerates into mechanism.") 

The necessary records often entail much work 
in writing. As an example, we shall present 



94 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

three sets of plans for describing auxiliary school 
pupils — by Gorke, Klabe and Richter. 

PERSONAL EECORD OF AUXILIARY SCHOOL PUPILS 

(Dr. M. Gorke). 

7. Personal data (to he filled hy teacher) 

1. Name in full. 

2. Age, place of birth, and religion. 

3. Name and station of parents. 

II. History of the child (to be filled in by teacher) 
(a) Family history. 

1. Illnesses or causes of death of parents, brothers 
and sisters; present condition of their health if Hving. 

2. Nervous disorders, mental diseases; deafness and 
dumbness among relatives. 

3. Are parents closely related ? 

4. Economic standing of the family. 
(6) Personal history. 

1. Birth. 

2. Nourishment in infancy. 

3. Previous physical development: 

(1) Dentition. 

(2) At what age did child begin to walk? 

(3) Development of the special senses. 

(4) Previous diseases — epilepsy, and other ner- 
vous disorders especially. 

4. Intellectual development. 

(1) At what age did child begin to talk? 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 95 

(2) At what age were defects in speech first 
noticed ? 

(3) Describe their nature. 

(4) At what age was abnormal mental develop- 
ment first noticed ? 

(5) How did it manifest itself? 

(6) What is its probable cause? (Accident, 
illness, serious defects in education and 
training, as overtaxing of mental or physical 
powers; or, on the other hand, their inactivity; 
poverty, privation, etc.) 

(7) Were these mental defects permanent or 
merely transitory? Did they show progres- 
sion, or were they of a fixed nature ? 

(8) What means (medical or pedagogic) have 
hitherto been employed with a view to correct- 
ing these defects, and with what result ? 

5. Ethical development. Did the child show evi- 
dence of any special defects or abnormal tendencies 
as, for example, lying, fear, appetite (gluttony), lazi- 
ness, etc. ? 

III. Present condition (to be filled by physician) 

1. Physical condition. 

(o) General — weight, size, complexion, appear- 
ance, nutrition, muscular development, shape of 
head, etc. 

(6) Sense development — (1) eyes, (2) ears, (3) 
taste and smell, (4) sensibility to pain, (5) touch. 



96 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

(c) Defective development — cleft palate, defective 
teeth, etc. 

(d) Signs of diseases as scrofula, rickets, scoliosis, 
struma; condition of internal organs, nasal breathing. 

(e) Are paralysis or muscular contractions notice- 
able? 

(/) Choreic movements, twitchings, etc. 

2. Emotional and nervous nature. 

Does the examination disclose any defects in the 
emotional nature, or of the will ? — as excitement, 
fear, restlessness, whimsicality, etc. Does child 
exhibit any special interests ? 

3. Intellectual activity. 

(a) Attention. 

(6) How does the process of thought proceed ? 
(rapidly, slowly, quietly, etc.) 

(c) Speech — (1) Does the child speak of himself 
in the first person.^ (2) Does he use the infinitive 
correctly ? 

(3) Describe clearly any difficulties on peculiarities 
in speech. 

(d) Imagination. 

(e) Memory — state development. 
(/) Judgment and reasoning. 

(g) Number sense. 

(h) Sense of form. 

(i) Sense of color. 

(j) Has the pupil any definite idea of time and 

space ? 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 



97 



(k) What progress has he made in the ordinary 
school studies ? 
Group III is to be carried along by the teacher during the 
whole of the child's school career. 



K. KLABES PLAN 

1. Full name. 

2. Date and place of birth. 

3. Religion Date of baptism. 

4. Vaccination: first .... second .... 

5. Name and occupation of parents or guardians. 

6. Resume of child's school work. 



DATE OF 
ADMISSION 



ATTENDANCE 



LONG ABSENCES, 
PROMOTION, TRANS- 
FERS, ETC. 



A. Remarks concerning child's development before he 
reached school age. 

B. Stage of development attained on entrance to auxiliary 
school. 

1. Physical development. 

2. Mental development. 

3. Disposition or temperament. 

4. Probable causes of child's deficiency. 

C. Additional observations concerning the pupil during 
his school career. 

Date of such observations. 



98 



AUXILIARY EDUCATION 



D. Child's interest in school work; his knowledge 
and skill. 



Religion 
German : 

Reading matter 

Skill in reading 

Skill in writing 

Skill in oral and written 

composition 
Number. 

Comprehension of number 

Skill in use of nimiber 
History 

Home geography 
Nature study 
Drawing 
Writing 
Singing 
Gymnastics 
Technical skill 
Domestic economy 
Absences (a) excused 

(6) unexcused 



EASTER 

19... 



ancHAEL- 

MAS 19. . . 



EASTER 

19... 



MICHAEL- 
MAS 19. . 



Signature of class teacher 

E. Explanation of defects from standpoint of psychology. 

F. Dismissal. 

1. Time and cause of dismissal. 

2. Degree of advancement attained. 

3. Additional remarks. 

4. How far has the school succeeded in fitting this 
pupil to take his place in life. 

G. Information concerning pupil after his dismissal from 
the school. 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 99 

K. Richter demanded a mass of detailed 
information concerning a pupil on his entrance 
to the auxiliary school. 

1. In each case, report on the individual pecul- 
iarities which distinguish the pupil from his fellows. 

2. Observations and information concerning 
his home training, and its probable influence on 
the pupil's school work; differences in conduct 
toward his fellow pupils in school and out, when 
under the teacher's care, and when not. 

3. Concerning children attending other classes 
for special studies, careful reports are to be made 
(at Easter time) on their conduct and progress. 

4. In later reports, give only the changes which 
have been noticed in the course of the term. 

5. All reports should be brief. 

richter's plan 
A. Physical Condition. 

Irregularity in function and structure. 
(1) Of the body as a whole — 

(a) Size (compared with normal of same age) ; 
size of parts in relation to the whole. 

(b) Posture in sitting, and standing; gait. 

(c) Diseases and physical defects — syphilis, 
scrofula, rickets, tuberculosis, epilepsy, anaemia, 
indigestion, abnormal skin conditions, muscular 
twitchings, etc., headaches, illnesses during 



100 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

school year, spinal curvature, chicken-breasted, 
narrow-chested, club-foot, asymmetry of limbs, 
etc., paralysis, defective sexual organs, (influence 
of puberty on the physical and mental life), etc. 

(2) Of the head — 

Size, shape, relation between skull and face, 
form of skull and face (asymmetry), facial 
expression. 

(3) Of the eyes — 

Distance between eyes, paralysis of lids, 
inflammation, squinting, rolling, cataracts, 
defects of iris, differences in size of pupils, short- 
sightedness, weak vision, dull, vacant gaze, 
inability to keep eyes fixed on one spot, colour- 
blindness, etc. 

(4) Of the ears — 

Outstanding ears, large, abnormal rim, folds, 
lobes lacking or attached; diseases of the ear, 
hearing, 

(5) Of the nose and throat — (concerning sense of 
smell, and breathing), chronic catarrh, adenoids, etc. 

(6.) Of the mouth — 

(o) Lips — distorted, hare-lip, etc. 

(b) Chin — protruding, receding, etc. 

(c) Teeth — number, condition. 

(d) Gums — palate, tonsils. 

(e) Tongue - — thick, tongue-tied, sense of 
taste, etc. 

(/) Salivation. 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 101 

(g) The skin — sensitiveness to heat, mechani- 
cal irritation (blows), and when injured, etc. 
B. Character and Disposition. 
Peculiarities of 

1. Disposition — quiet, sad, serious, melancholy, 
peevish, sullen, indifferent, sensitive, "touchy," soft- 
hearted, tearful, emotional, whimsical, hard, shy, 
anxious, fearful, timid, gay, lively, unruly, noisy, 
irritable. 

2. Appetites and desires. 

(a) Appetite — eats too little, eats too heartily, 
greedy; overfond of sweets; chews paper, wood, 
fingernails, etc. 

(b) Sexual impulses — their development. 

(c) Inclination toward physical activity — 
defective physical activity — ease-loving, lazy, 
easily fatigued, tired, sleepy; restless, lively, 
playful (or rather, constantly playing), unstable, 
unsteady in movements, hysterical, voluble, 
boisterous. 

Automatic movements — swaying parts of body, 
sliding, staggering; drumming, rubbing, movements of 
tongue and lips, grimaces, etc. Clumsy, awkward, 
unsteady, awkward in making simple movements 
(spreading and bending fingers, throwing, grasping, 
rising), weak muscular sense, defective memory for 
coordination (as in dressing and undressing), left or 
right handed. 

Imitation — mechanical or deliberate. 



102 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

{d) Peculiarities — mania for collecting, 
kleptomania, pyromania, destructiveness, run- 
ning away, wandering, contradicting, etc. 
S. Moral impulses. 

(a) Feelings toward " self. " (Egoistic 
impulses.) With or without self-respect, self- 
confidence; haughty, proud, honourable, ambi- 
tious, vain, lacking sense of honour, courageous, 
bold. 

(6) Altruistic impulses. Conduct toward 
grown people and children ; faithful, exaggerated 
fondness, or indifference towards parents and 
others; apathetic; grateful toward benefactors; 
thankful; polite, obliging, seeking to ingratiate 
self, confidential, suspicious, bold, shameless, 
disobedient, unruly, stubborn, indifferent alike 
to praise or blame. 

Sympathetic, jealous, envious, malicious, 
scornful, mischievous, mean, revengeful. 

Sociable, unsocial (tendency to avoid fellow 
pupils), good-natured, harmless, fond of teasing 
quarrelsome, tattling, leading others astray, 
violent, cruel. 

(N. B. For the sake of brevity, the opposites 
have been omitted in many instances.) 

(c) Ethical impulses, or the feeling for right 
and duty. With or without a sense of right, 
duty, and propriety; conscientious, careless, 
fickle, thoughtless; sense of shame, repentant; 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 103 

selfish, covetous, deceitful, thievish; generous, 
truthful, sincere, positive, arrogant; untruth- 
ful (owing to intellectual or moral weakness); 
hypocritical, well-behaved, naughty, sly; con- 
duct toward the opposite sex. 

4. The religious sense. With or without this sense, 
superstitions, hypocritical, etc. 

5. Aesthetic feelings (love of the beautiful). Defec- 
tive sense of the beautiful (form, color, tone); distorted 
aesthetic sense, ^. e., love for what is ugly, etc.; use of 
rough language; love of order and personal cleanliness; 
care of clothing, etc.; promptness. 

6. Intellectual feelings. Pleasure in success, and its 
opposite under opposite conditions; uncertainty and 
doubt concerning the accuracy of his own acts; self- 
satisfied, self-complacent, over-confident of personal 
ability or knowledge; easily astonished, curious, inquis- 
itive; with or without spontaneous impulses, indifferent, 
lacking energy, weak-willed ; depending upon momentary 
impressions; easily managed, easily influenced, credu- 
lous, easily misled, unstable in desire, lazy, fond of work, 
industrious, docile. 

. Intellectual development. 
Special remarks concerning 

1. Mental ability in general. 

(a) Incapable of improvement? or does 
child approach the normal at all ? 

(6) Symmetry in the development of the chief 
faculties of the mind (memory, thought); 



104 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

special weakness or strength of one or the other. 
(c) Reaction time of mental processes; slow, 
mentally inactive; aversion toward mental effort; 
slow to think; quick; thoughtless, flighty. 

2. Attention. Voluntary or involuntary attention. 
Attentive, inattentive, indifferent, easily wearied; con- 
sistent; easily distracted; flitting from one object of 
thought to another; heedless. Attentive only when fre- 
quently called upon to attend. 

Interest in work in general or in special studies. 

3. Mental ability in general. 

(a) Attitude on receiving new impressions and 
sensations; receptivity; rapidity and power 
of apprehension — whether difficult or easy, 
slow or quick, incomplete and inaccurate, or 
complete and clear. Superficial in perception 
and in power of observation. Differences in the 
ability of the various senses. 

Are the mental powers easily aroused ? 
Difficulty in comprehending sense impressions 
or language. 

(6) Power of memory (power to assimilate, 
retain, and recall). Eaisy or difficult; more or 
less complete assimilation of poems, verses, 
multiplication tables, and similar arbitrary 
material; impressions resulting from work in 
the different studies. 

Character of retention of sense impressions 
and memory images. Forgetfulness. 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 105 

Many-sidedness of observation. Character 
of memory for names, words, numbers, forms 
{i.e., of letters and figures), colours, places, tones, 
successive or connected movements, etc. 

Quick or slow recollection; character of the 
reproduced ideas — are they true to the original 
or have changes been made — omissions, inver- 
sions, additions or the opposites ? 

(c) Ability to elaborate into higher products 
what has been acquired. 

In the realm of thought — Does the child 
distinguish readily between objects and their 
special characteristics ? (resemblances, dif- 
ferences, etc.) Does he distinguish between 
the essential and the non-essential ? Character 
of his power of abstraction ; is unable to advance 
beyond sense-perceptions. 

Character of general notions along certain 
lines, or in certain branches of study; indistinct 
and hazy ideas, confusion of ideas, etc. 

Accuracy, rapidity and certainty of judg- 
ments and conclusions formed in reference 
to the concrete and to the abstract. 

(2) In the realm of the imagination. Weak 
or easily excited; difficulty in imagining things 
not present to the senses, or in imagining oneself 
in other times, or in strange lands, or in 
imagining people living under different con- 
ditions (the sort imagination called for in 



106 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

studying Bible history and in writing compo- 
sitions, etc.) 

Imagination when at play (building, exer- 
cises in construction), in manual training, 
(changing form and size), in drawing (form and 
colour). 

Highly imaginative — spreading evil reports 
concerning others, prevaricating, etc. 
4. Development of the power of speech. 

(a) Tone (speaking tone) as to strength, timbre 
and pitch; gentle, whispering, loud, screaming, 
singing, monotonous; falsely accented; harsh 
hoarse, screeching; sharp, repressed, nasal; 
high, deep (the deep tone of puberty). 

(6) Pronunciation and the rate of speaking. 
Impurity of tone, loud, careless pronunciation; 
"swallowing" final syllables; slow, drawling; 
hesitating, stuttering (inserting syllables or 
words; rapid, "running together" of syllables 
or words; omitting or repeating syllables or 
words. 

(c) Organic defects. Lisping, stammering, 
stuttering; complete or partial inability to speak 
(speaking only single sounds, or syllables, certain 
words or phrases); defective enunciation of 
syllables. Inability to comprehend connection 
between sense perception and word, letter or 
sound; number and figure, idea and word; 
"word blindness"; "word deafness;" confus- 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 107 

ing words unconsciously ; (e. g., for wardrobe, 
table; for table, leg, etc.) 

(d) Clearness and accuracy of speech. Clear, 
connected speech; lacking vocabulary; repeat- 
ing in parrot fashion; inventing words, choice 
of words, use of idioms and colloquialisms, and 
use of dialects. 

Development of the "Sprachgefiihl," or feeling 
for language. 

Variations in ability to understand and speak 
the dialect and the written language. Mistakes 
in the order of words; use of the infinitive; 
inflections; incorrect use of tenses; use of 
prepositions, etc. 
D. Development in knowledge and skill. 

Under this head we shall note the child's attitude 
toward the subject-matter presented in the various 
branches of study — this attitude is probably the result 
of the child's mental and physical endowment or ability. 
By referring now to the peculiarities noted in A, B, 
and C above, we shall endeavour to show to what 
special points the attention should be directed in the 
various studies. 

1. Religious instruction. Does the child possess any 
religious concepts, thoughts, feelings? Does 
he find it easy or difficult to comprehend religious 
teachings ? What interest does he show in 
such instruction ? (Referring chiefly now to the 
Biblical material of his school grade.) 



108 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

What stage of development has he attained 
in relation to religious subject-matter ? (Abstrac- 
tions, judgments, forming conclusions, with 
special reference to the ethical and religious 
'alue of his acts and the acquirement of ethical 
and dogmatic teachings.) 

Comprehension, retention and reproduction 
of religious teachings. Application of these 
teacliings to his own conduct. 
2. Realien (Real things, i. e., the subjects which give 
a knowledge of things). 

(a) Object lessons. Ability to observe and 
describe things in nature, models, pictures. 
Differences in the perceptions gained through the 
different senses. Acquired knowledge of names, 
qualities, activities, purposes, uses, etc., of 
objects and events in his own surroundings. 

Interest and degree of participation in conver- 
sation; understanding of a talk on things actually 
present to the senses, on things not so present, 
and of the moral or religious subjects suggested 
by them. Thought and imagination in connec- 
tion with the material so presented. Memory 
for correlated fables, poems, etc. 

(6) Nature Study. Ability to see and recog- 
nize objects and places in nature, in pictures, 
by means of models. 

Ideas gained through personal experience or 
by means of instruction. 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 109 

Ability to distinguish between form and struc- 
ture, between cause and effect, etc. 

(c) HeimatJcunde (home geography) and 
geography. Ability to observe (personal ob- 
servations, observations made in class excur- 
sions, etc. ) 

Ability to imagine himself in places previously 
visited. 

Map drawing. Use of maps. 

Ability to relate his ideas on home geography 
to general geography. Power to receive and 
retain knowledge pertaining to home geography 
and general geography. 

History. Interest in historical persons, facts, 
events (related to German history), and under- 
standing of the same. 

Memory for facts, names, etc. 
3. German. 

(a) Reading. Reader and reading matter. 
(Recognition of printed and written symbols, 
"blending" of syllables and words, sentence 
reading, reading of connected stories, etc. (Ger- 
man or Roman type). 

Mechanical skill in reading; reading with 
expression. Characteristic mistakes in reading. 
Reproduction of material read ; memory for the 
same. 

(6) Writing. Copying written letters and 
words, with or without a knowledge of their 



110 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

meaning. Copying from print, German or 
Roman text. Analysis and synthesis of words. 
Writing from dictation — mechanical, or upon 
reflection. 

Characteristic errors in dictation. 

(c) Written composition. Ability to express 
in writing, own thoughts or those of others. 
Mistakes in sentence construction; order of 
words, sequence of thought, choice of expres- 
sions, etc. 

4. Arithmetic. Counting — knowledge of the order 
of numbers, numeration, notation. 

Mechanical skill, in the simple rules; state 
how far child can go in each. Difference in 
oral and written arithmetic. Does the pupil 
possess a specially good memory for number 
and for the sequence of operations, or is he 
deficient here ? 

Comprehension of the applications of arith- 
metic. Difference in ability to comprehend 
concrete and abstract examples. 

5. Special "accomplishments." 

(a) " Schonschreihen" — Material presented. 
Comprehension of the form of letters and their 
differences. Aptitude for copying. Character; 
istics of the child's writing — slant, strength, 
spacing, relative size of letters, regularity, etc. 

(6) " Netzzeichnen " (i. e., drawing on paper 
divided into squares) — straight and curved lines; 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 111 

freehand drawing; stigmographic drawing (i. e., 
drawing by the aid of points or dots at various 
distances from one another). Abihty to under- 
stand and copy Hnes of different directions and 
lengths; single figures and groups. 

Manner of execution — mechanical, or as 
the result of reflection; more or less independ- 
ently; light or heavy touch; eye measurements; 
accuracy, neatness, etc. Taste in regard to 
colour and form. 

(c) Singing. Hearing, voice, rhythm, mem- 
ory for music. Special preferences for music, 
singing, certain songs, etc. 

(d) Gymnastics. Strength, endurance; skill 
in execution of movements; sense of rythm; 
conduct during the gymnastic and game periods. 
(Sociability, defects of character, use of imagina- 
tion, etc.) 

(e) Manual Training. Kind of activity mani- 
fested. Note cleverness in any special line; 
special interest in any certain kind of work. 

Manner and method of execution; degree of 
skill manifested. 

The amount of writing required in a report 
like the above appals one; in addition, the teacher 
who is interested in the finer phases of the child's 
development is constantly hampered by the 
necessity of answering the numerous questions. 



112 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

For many reasons, the plan for the description 
of pupils for the auxiliary school should not be 
too comprehensive; neither should the questions 
be too detailed in character. It is true, however, 
that few teachers can draw up a suitable form 
for themselves. Hence, Triiper urged cooperation 
— he felt that if this led to nothing further than 
a discussion of even a few common difficulties, 
much good would result. Unfortunately, however, 
Triiper pleaded in vain. (Triiper's request was 
published in Kinder jehler, 1897, 5-6). Little has 
appeared on the subject since that time; and it 
must be admitted that none of this works toward 
uniformity. Possibly Lay's "individuality list" 
may serve as a starting point toward that goal — uni- 
formity. In his Experimental Didactics, Lay works 
out his "list" from the following standpoints: 

A. Conditions and functions. 

I. Inheritance. 

II. Environment. 

(a) Family 

1. Nutrition (effects of alcoholism, etc.) 

2. Illnesses. 

3. Amount of sleep — its character, the bed- 
room, bed-fellows. 

4. Training. (Parents' outlook on life, their 
mistakes, example). 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 113 

5. Recreation and play — kinds, time devoted 
to them, work out of school hours, etc. 
(6) Associates. 

1. Friendships and playmates. 

2. Public life — street; religious and political 
associations. 

(c) Nature. 

Natural surroundings, i. e., home environ- 
ment, etc. 
III. Coordinations of the sensory-motor mechanism. 

(a) Physical and psychical energy. 

(b) Tendency to become exhausted. 

(c) Special aptitudes. 

(d) Traits of character. 

B. Physical nature. 

General physical nature; constitution, size, weight; 
deviations from the normal; illnesses. 

C. Mental attributes. 

I. Sensory — type of observation. 
II. Associative — attention, memory, interests. 
III. Motor movements; skill; actions. 

Previous writers dealt with details, while Lay 
places stress on general characteristics. The lack 
of any direct reference to a plan or course of 
study is a decided advance in Lay's scheme. 
At Halle, we have become firmly convinced of 
the inadequacy of our method of making semi- 
annual reports on each subject of the course of 



114 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

study. For instance, what can a teacher report 
concerning a child's progress in religious instruc- 
tion ? Shall we examine the child and then 
report "N. N. has learned (well or poorly) a 
certain number of Scriptural stories, portions of 
the Catechism, certain hymns, and proverbs" ? 
Or shall we place greater importance on the 
appreciation of the subject-matter of religious 
instruction ? Or, lastly, can we determine the 
relation between the child's actions and his 
religious and moral obligations ? I am inclined 
to think that the auxiliary school teacher is 
scarcely qualified to pass judgment on the 
child's progress in religious training. Similar 
difficulties will confront us in all other branches 
of study. 

Now, though Lay's scheme does simplify mat- 
ters to a certain degree, many other problems 
still remain unsolved. In the first place, very 
few teachers possess the psychological insight 
which Dr. Lay presupposes in his "list." More- 
over, his scheme is also open to criticism on the 
ground of the labour involved in writing answers 
to his headings — people differ greatly in the 
point of view taken in regard to such matters. 
But, on the other hand, Lay's scheme can be 
.simplified and so become more practical. (It is to 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 115 

be hoped that this important matter will be taken 
up shortly in our auxiliary school association.) 

In the first place, the physical peculiarities 
could be reported upon by the school physician. 
The health record (as given above) could be 
consulted at any time by the principal and teachers 
of the school. 

There would then remain but three divisions 
for the teachers to report on, and the first of these, 
dealing with the child's inherited tendencies, etc., 
should receive a brief treatment. The other two 
come under the following heads: I. Environ- 
ment (family and home) : (1) vocation, (2) nutrition, 
(3) number of children, (4) illnesses, (5) parents' 
outlook on life, (6) recreations, work, and 
associations. II. Inheritance in the sensory 
and motor fields: (1) physical and mental power 
of resistance, (2) power of observation, (3) of 
attention, of memory, special interests, (4) move- 
ments, skill, actions, power of speech, (5) traits 
of character. 

Following Lay's plan, let us reconstruct the 
records of Agnes S. and Otto B., given in 
Chapter IV. 

I. Agnes S., born Dec. 24, 1895, shows evidences 
of having inherited the effects of alcoholism. 

II. Her father, who worked at odd jobs occa- 



116 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

sionally, died under the influence of liquor. Her 
mother, who did not bear a very good reputation, 
married again; the second husband was an iron- 
w^orker, who had frequently been arrested for 
drunkenness; at present they are living apart. 
The family has never been sufficiently nourished, 
and there seems to be little hope of improving 
conditions as the combined earnings of the family 
are small. Of five children of the first marriage, 
three died of convulsions at an early age; the 
others passed safely through the usual illnesses 
of childhood. The mother, though not yet forty 
years of age, is physically delicate. 

There is but one small sleeping room for the 
family; the two girls sleep on a couch which is 
far from clean. Agnes is an exceedingly restless 
sleeper, and usually gnashes her teeth. After 
school she roams about the streets with her 
sister as there is nothing else for them to do. The 
mother herself is by no means a model of industry ; 
she is happiest when not annoyed by the presence 
of her children. Her idea of training them 
consists on the one hand of harsh words and 
blows, and on the other, of pampering. This 
latter she considers to be the true test of mother 
love. Agnes joins her comrades in play at 
times; then again, she goes off alone to dream. 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 117 

Occasionally she shdws signs of affection for 
her playmates; at other times she scratches and 
bites them. 

III. Owing to the fact that she has always 
been poorly nourished, Agnes is physically 
incapable of resisting disease. She is very stub- 
born and perverse — insists on doing what is 
forbidden. She tires easily, often sleeping during 
class work. She is utterly incapable of following 
out a line of thought or holding to an idea. Some- 
times she seems contented; at other times she 
is cross and peevish. Laughter changes to tears 
on slight provocation; indeed she often laughs 
or cries without apparent reason; she seems 
absolutely lacking in any sense of moral obligation. 

In size, Agnes is below the average. As to 
general constitution, she belongs to the middle 
group; height, chest measure, and weight fall 
below the average. Abdomen prominent, slight 
spinal curvature; gait awkward and ungainly; 
squints slightly with the left eye, otherwise sight 
and hearing seem normal; convex palate; mouth 
breather; teeth very irregular; speech very 
defective. Impressions from without are very 
imperfect, owing to what may be termed her 
mental unrest, rather than to the faulty structure 
of the sense organs. Attention and concentration 



118 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

seem impossible in her case. Although she may 
try hard to attend, she is distracted by any sound, 
etc., which brings up at once a new train of thought. 
Consequently her memory for words, colours, 
time and space relations, and tones is exceedingly 
poor. Her interests are those of the moment — 
permanent interests apparently have no place 
in her make-up. Her restlessness is characteristic 
of her type; it is impossible for her to be quiet 
even for a very short time; it seems here as if 
physical restlessness and mental unrest go hand 
in hand. Agnes possesses no skill in manual 
work, and her lack of perseverance is a severe 
trial to her teachers. 

Following Lay's scheme again, let us examine 
Otto B: 

I. Inheritance: Otto B., born 1892, evidently 
inherits tuberculosis. 

II. Environment : The father, a labourer, died 
of tuberculosis. The mother does washing; she 
is away from home all day. She has borne 
twelve children, four of whom died at an early 
age. Otto is the ninth child. In addition to 
the father's long illness, there was much sickness 
Among the children of the family. The parents 
here had no thought of their duty in training or 
educating their children, 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 119 

Otto agrees with his playmates as long as 
Qe can play leader in all of their games. If he 
feels that he is being imposed upon, he immediately 
seeks revenge. He is fond of stealing rides on 
the street cars; he often steals fruit from the fruit 
stands. Since his home is on the outskirts of 
a town, he spends a good deal of time wandering 
about in the fields. 

III. Inheritance in the sensory and motor 
fields. As a result of his outdoor life and play. 
Otto has grown to be a strong boy, and he walks 
the long distance to and from school without 
showing signs of fatigue. But his mentality is 
poor; many times he seems to possess no mental 
life at all. What must at one time have possessed 
an interest for him, seems as other times not to 
exist at all as far as he is concerned. Then, 
suddenly, his mind seems to awaken, and for 
a time he is apparently a good scholar. He 
observes closely every occurrence on the street 
which has any interest for him. He understands 
the value of money, and he spends much of his 
spare time earning money by rendering various 
little services to those who will employ him. He 
seems to find it especially difiicult to keep the 
seventh commandment. 

He is nimble and expert at running and 



120 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

climbing. His speech is very faulty for two reasons 
— in the first place, he is careless in enunciation, 
and he stammers; secondly, he omits words 
here and there or inserts them in the wrong 
place in the sentence. Otto is naturally good- 
natured, but punishment makes him sullen. His 
general physical condition may be called good. 
In size, weight, and chest measure he is above 
the average. He suffers somewhat from astigma- 
tism; glasses were ordered, and these improved 
his sight. His ears are normal; he is a mouth 
breather and his voice is hoarse. 

Otto B. belongs to the type which understands 
how to enlarge and enrich the mental life by 
impressions from without. As long as the subject- 
matter of instruction is concrete, he is attentive; 
but his memory is very poor. His defective 
speech is a sore trial and hindrance. So far he 
has shown no special interests or abilities which 
might point to his future vocation. His activity, 
often uncontrollable, can scarcely be regarded 
as a sign of disease. Unless he is closely watched, 
he gets into all sorts of mischief. 

Perhaps many an important detail has been 
emphasized here, while, on the other hand, 
certain others of greater value have been 
omitted. It is indeed a difficult matter to write 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 121 

a good description of a child's mental capacity. 
For this reason, frequent consultation is neces- 
sary. 

Let us think now, for a moment, of the auxiliary 
school teacher. He has this advantage over 
the teacher in an ordinary school — he is first 
of all an educator, then a teacher. Therefore, he 
welcomes the opportunity for obtaining a proper 
foundation for his work by studying the "personal 
records" of his pupils. The fact that he can 
build this foundation for himself makes it doubly 
valuable for him; he is able, too, to test its accuracy 
at every step of the way. He must be careful, 
however, not to fall into the error of supposing 
that, because certain facts are correct, all his 
conclusions are correctly drawn. Constant and 
careful observation will, in the end, enable him 
to form a fairly correct estimate of his pupils. 
This sort of work raises him far above the standard 
of many who call themselves teachers, besides 
affording him the sort of pleasure which always 
accompanies scientific investigation; for every 
successful study of a pupil, serves, in its small 
way, the great purpose which the study of the 
evolution of man has raised. 

But the work of the auxiliary school is directed 
toward the benefit of its pupils — we must not 



122 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

lose sight of this truth — and it is the teacher's 
duty to become thoroughly acquainted with his 
pupils in order to judge them properly and to 
treat them correctly. This sort of work is 
important for every person who deals with the 
pupil in any capacity. 

The auxiliary school pupil is entitled to con- 
sideration, not only in school, and during his 
school career, but at all times and in all places. 
Employers, military and court authorities, and 
others should be informed concerning the personal 
record of these children. Unfortunately, the use 
of such records is but little understood as yet. 
Many of them still prefer to receive an estimate 
of the pupil in numbers (per cents.) — which 
seems an easy method of comprehension, rather 
than the more elaborate "characterization" of 
the person in question. The latter forces them 
to form a judgment concerning the pupil, and 
thus seems more cumbersome. 

At Plauen, the following form of report is sent 
semi-annually to the parents of auxiliary school 
pupils. If all schools would adopt this plan, 
the parents would have constantly placed before 
them what is characteristic of their children, 
and, perhaps, in time, employers and others 
would also learn to make proper use of these 



THE PUPIL AND HIS TRAITS 123 

records in forming conclusions concerning the 
pupils involved. 
Certificate to the parents of 



Class 

Conduct and industry 

Mental progress 

Absences excused unexcused 

Auxiliary School (six grades; regular Volksschule) at 
Plauen, Michaelmas 190. . 

Teacher 



Parent or guardian. 
For the sake of greater simplicity, the auxiliary 
school teacher could adapt the record to the use 
for which it is intended; e. g., a certain form of 
statement could be written for the employer of 
a servant; a different form for the master of 
an apprentice; still another (emphasizing points 
required) for the military, etc. But these care- 
fully prepared records must be appreciated by 
the different authorities, employers, etc., and 
put to their best use, else the labour has been in 
vain. Unfortunately, the work of the auxiliary 
school has met with but little appreciation as 
yet ; we hope to show, a little later on, how impor- 
tant a factor the auxiliary school is as a social 
organiziation. 



VII 

THE AUXILIAJIY SCHOOL BUILDING 

THE auxiliary school, as the latest develop- 
ment in the education of children, has so 
far received but little consideration as far as 
its housing is concerned. 

Usually it is organized in connection with a 
regular folk school, and occupies rooms not needed 
by the latter — it must find place where it can. 
Ideal conditions must be the aim, but this is often 
a difficult problem, from the financial point of view. 

It may not be amiss, however, to discuss the 
question of ideal conditions. The location of 
auxiliary classes and schools, must, of necessity, 
be governed largely by the size of the district 
or districts concerned. In a small community, the 
first and perhaps the only necessary auxiliary 
class, would be established in or near the regular 
school. In larger communities, it is advisable to 
have groups of classes, so distributed as to location, 
that they will be easy of access to the pupils who 
are expected to attend them. 

124 



AUXILIARY SCHOOL BUILDING 125 

From the point of view of school government, 
it would, perhaps, be wisest to organize a certain 
number of classes into an auxiliary school before 
additional classes were planned. 

A gymnasium should be built in connection 
with this special school, and playgrounds and 
school gardens should be provided. 

The building itself (affording accommodations 
for the principal and the janitor) should be a 
model as far as hygienic conditions are concerned. 
The heating and ventilating systems, and the 
plumbing (toilets, etc.) should be as nearly perfect 
as possible, following the most approved plans. 

All floors should be covered with linoleum. It 
is suggested also that the seats in the classrooms, 
especially those for the accommodation of younger 
pupils, be arranged as in an amphitheatre. 

The school building should also contain bath- 
rooms, an infirmary and a workshop. Dressing 
rooms should be provided in connection with 
the bathrooms; the bathroom floors should be 
warmed and so constructed as to preclude all 
danger of slipping. In addition, a sufiicient 
number of shower baths should be provided. 

The infirmary should be large enough to provide 
accommodation for pupils requiring special atten- 
tion (examination, vaccination, etc.). A medicine 



126 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

cabinet in the infirmary should be stocked with 
various kinds of bandages, restoratives, anti- 
septics, etc., all ready for immediate use. All 
necessary apparatus, used by the physician in 
making his examinations, should also be kept at 
hand. 

The workshop should contain materials and 
implements for modelling, and for paper and 
woodwork. Tables, stools, and chests (to hold 
materials, tools, etc.) should form part of the 
fittings of the workshop. 

The equipment should also include a turning 
lathe and a joiner's bench. 

It is a wise plan to connect the gymnasium 
with the main building by means of a covered 
walk or corridor, so that the pupils may go to 
and from the gymnasium in all kinds of weather 
without danger. 

The walls of the gymnasium, as well as the 
schoolroom walls, should be decorated with 
pictures and mottoes; the rooms should be made 
as comfortable and as pleasant as possible. 

Ordinary gymnasium apparatus is not always 
suitable for an auxiliary school. The gymnasium 
in the latter requires special apparatus suitable 
for all kinds of hygienic and corrective work in 
gymnastics. It goes without saying that a 



AUXILIARY SCHOOL BUILDING 127 

piano should be included in the equipment 
of a gymnasium. 

As stated above, school gardens and play- 
grounds should also be placed at the disposal 
of auxiliary school pupils. 

Sand piles and garden beds afford abundant 
opportunity for play, and also for the care and 
culture of flowers and vegetables. Aquaria and 
terraria might be used to teach a love for animals 
and how to care for them. 



VIII 

THE ORGANIZATION OF AN AUXILIARY SCHOOL 
AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF ITS PUPILS 

NEXT in importance comes the question of 
classifying the pupils. Any one who 
observes the development of an auxiliary school 
will realize that a good deal of time is needed 
for careful observation, etc., before the pupils 
can be separated into its several classes. Hence, 
it would be wisest to begin every auxiliary school 
with but one class. 

It will be necessary for the teacher to group 
her pupils in some way — even then, perhaps, 
her hard work will show but little result for a 
long time. 

One of the important questions which demands 
solution is this, "What pupils shall be admitted 
to the auxiliary school ?" At Halle, our progress 
in the organization of the auxiliary school was 
very slow and we assume that the same may be 
said of other places; the pupils are separated 
from among regular school pupils slowly and 

128 



THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 129 

carefully. When the authorities become con- 
vinced that it is not always necessary for a can- 
didate for auxiliary schools to exhibit pronounced 
symptoms of mental deficiency, or marked signs 
of abnormality, the question of enlarging a special 
class into an auxiliary school will come about 
as a natural result. 

How many pupils should be placed in a class, 
and how many classes should an auxiliary school 
contain ? 

Auxiliary school pupils gain greatest benefit 
when placed in small classes, but as each class 
calls for the expenditure of considerable money, 
the authorities seem loath to acknowledge this 
point. 

The Prussian Minister of Education (June 
16, 1894) recommended that no class should 
exceed twenty-five in number. He aims, in my 
opinion, to encourage cities and towns in their 
efforts to establish auxiliary schools. But his 
statement is based, as it were, on financial con- 
siderations — were it not, he would have recom- 
mended a much smaller number. This 
recommendation has, unfortunately, been regarded 
as final in many places. But if a teacher desires 
to give individual instruction, her class must 
register less than twenty-five; this is especially 



130 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

true in the case of the lower classes; fifteen 
pupils would be a fair number here. Some cities 
have adopted fifteen as their register number. I 
would that other cities would follow their example, 
and that eventually we should find it the rule to 
have the lower grades register fifteen, the inter- 
mediate twenty, and the higher grades twenty-five. 

Statistics show that about one-half of one per 
cent, of the population is made up of defective 
children; in a city of 100,000 inhabitants, we 
might have about five hundred pupils for auxiliary 
schools. This does not always hold, to be sure, 
for in Halle, of 160,000 inhabitants, we have about 
two hundred and twenty-five pupils ; Mannheim, a 
city of the same size, cared for sixty-seven auxiliary 
pupils in 1903-4. The conditions at Mannheim 
cannot be taken as conclusive, because, as will be 
remembered, the present scheme of admission at 
Mannheim differs greatly from that followed 
at Halle. A glance at " Wintermann's Survey 
of Auxiliary Schools and Classes" (1903), may 
give us more definite information on the matter. 

Towns like Aix-la-Chapelle, Barmen, Brunswick, 
Chemnitz, Cologne, Diisseldorf, Elberfeld, and 
others (all industrial towns) send, on the average, 
more pupils to auxiliary schools than other towns 
whose population is not largely composed of 



THE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 131 

workmen. Thus it seems that the class of inhab- 
itants, their vocations and manner of living, exert 
greater influence on the number of defective 
pupils than the mere size of the city or town. 

Suppose that there are 100 pupils to be taken 
into an auxiliary school. How should its organiz- 
ation proceed? Many answers might be given 
here, but one thing will surely be agreed upon: 
the weakest pupils who have never been in school 
at all should be grouped as once into the lowest 
class. These children must first be taught to 
speak properly. 

The further establishment of the school depends 
upon many conditions — room, accommodations, 
etc. In some places, there is a tendency to 
establish classes corresponding roughly to the 
grades in the regular schools. The auxiliarj?^ 
school should have as many classes as possible, 
but no class should have more than two sections. 

The question of organization might be con- 
sidered from two standpoints — namely, the 
religion, and the sex of the pupils. 

As yet there has been no question concerning 
the predominance of one or another religious 
belief among the pupils. The work has been 
founded so far on a more philanthropic basis. 
When, however, the parents or the clergy are 



132 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

desirous of having the religious feature of instruc- 
tion emphasized, the matter is best left to special 
teachers, as in the regular folk schools. Exper- 
ience has proved, however, that parents seldom 
insist on this privilege. If the religious instruction 
is broad in character, as is necessary in auxiliary 
schools, the Protestant and the Catholic child 
may attend the instruction together until they 
reach the age of confirmation. 

The sex of the pupils exerts as little influence 
on organization as does the question of religion. 
Whether from the standpoint of economy or from 
pedagogical considerations, co-education has been 
thought necessary and helpful from the start. The 
question of co-education has been readily solved 
here, and no dangers, moral or other, have been 
found. 



IX 

THE PROGRAMME 

THE problem of planning a course of studies 
even for a regular school presents many 
difficulties — that is, if we desire a course 
which will fulfil all the demands of hygiene and 
still answer the demands of a school pro- 
gramme. It is a difficult matter to keep the correct 
proportion between the two. There is still a lack 
of agreement on the part of physicians and school 
people, in regard to the following questions: 
" What studies cause fatigue most easily .^" and 
"How can one recognize and decide upon the 
degree of fatigue .f^" 

Kraepelin, Ebbinghaus, Lobsien, Bauer, have 
made a special study of fatigue. Erismann, 
Burgerstein and Schiller have paid special attention 
to the division of lesson periods and alternating 
recesses, as well as to the order in which lessons 
should succeed one another. These names stand 
as proof of the difficulty of solving these questions. 
We assume, as a matter of course, that feeble- 

133 



134 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

minded children show fatigue and exhaustion 
sooner than children of normal development. 

Lesson periods in auxiliary schools are therefore 
of shorter duration than in the regular school. 
The question of the succession of lessons or 
subjects has also been carefully considered — dif- 
ficult studies should be followed by easy ones. 
Subjects which demand special mental effort 
should not follow one another. As a general 
rule, these should alternate with lessons introducing 
manual training ("techincal" is the term used 
by Maennel). As certain forms of manual 
training are also fatiguing to auxiliary school 
children, we must exercise great care in choosing 
here. 

If general rules can be formulated concerning 
the arrangement of studies, perhaps the following 
may prove of use: 

1. The day's studies should be so arranged 
as to meet the demands of mental energy required 
for each. 

2. The first lesson of the day should not always 
make the heaviest demand upon the child. 

3. If a lesson has especially aroused and stim- 
ulated one side of the child's nature, the next 
lesson should appeal to another phase which has 
not yet been stimulated. 



THE PROGRAMME 135 

Beyond a few very general rules, the teacher 
should be left free to arrange the daily plan of 
studies in accordance with the needs of his class. 
It often happens that pupils come to school half 
awake, and at such times are naturally unfit to 
receive instruction, say, in arithmetic or religion; 
on such occasions a walk is more profitable than 
forced instruction. 

Many writers on auxiliary school matters make 
the following rules in addition to the above: 

4. The same subjects should be taught in 
every class at the same time. For example, if 
arithmetic is assigned to a certain time, arithmetic 
instruction must be given in all classes at that 
hour. This is held to be necessary, because of 
the peculiarities of the pupils; many are able 
to talk well, but read very poorly; others make 
progress in arithmetic, but are unable to speak 
well. The question is asked, "Shall a pupil be 
held back for his defects along one line, when he 
can accomplish more in others ?" Perhaps it 
were wiser to permit each pupil to advance accord- 
ing to his special ability. Taking for granted 
that all auxiliary classes are placed in one building, 
and the programme is arranged as indicated, 
the pupil can go to that class in arithmetic or 
reading which corresponds to his standard. In 



136 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

all other subjects, the pupil remains in his own 
class and advances with his classmates. 

This plan may have the advantage of furthering 
the individual abilities of a child, so that, perhaps 
he may read or cipher better than if he had 
advanced more slowly with his classmates. But 
what do these signify in comparison to his back- 
wardness along other lines ? The wandering about 
from room to room induces a spirit of restlessness 
and lack of restraint in the school, which tends 
to make the whole school unsettled, and militates 
against all permanent educative influence. 

5. The auxiliary school should have no after- 
noon session. This demand, so recently urged 
in connection with regular schools in our larger 
cities, has an especial significance for the auxiliary 
school. As a rule, auxiliary school pupils are 
forced to travel considerable distances to and 
from school and occasionally these long walks 
cause suffering to delicate children. 

In the case of older pupils in the higher classes, 
the question cannot always be so considered. An 
afternoon session must be added if children are 
to have thirty-two lesson periods per week. This 
question, however, can be left to the decision of 
the school directors, who may perhaps secure 
to weak pupils (backward on account of long 



THE PROGRAMME 137 

distance to school) the privilege of riding to 
school at the city's expense. 

6. Intermissions must be more carefully con- 
sidered than in the case of the regular school. 
Generally speaking, recesses are fifteen to twenty 
minutes long. The main point to be kept in 
mind, however, is this — that the recesses and 
intermissions should really refresh and strengthen 
the pupils. They should breathe fresh, pure 
air, eat a simple luncheon, and move about 
without restraint, preferably in play. The teacher 
must be constantly on the watch, and help the 
pupils to make the best of these recesses. Here 
he will find abundant opportunities for obser- 
vation, and may, through his observations, render 
valuable aid to his co-workers. 



X 

THE COURSE OF STUDY 

IT IS no easy task to answer the numerous 
questions which arise concerning the course 
of study for the elementary school; the choice 
and arrangement of the subjects of instruction 
demand much careful thought. In the case of 
auxiliary schools, the matter becomes even more 
difficult. At the very outset the mental pecu- 
liarities of auxiliary school pupils raise the 
question, "Is it possible at all to plan a course 
of study for auxiliary schools which will meet 
to any extent the demands of the so-called average 
intellect ?" 

If we cannot reach a definite conclusion on 
certain points in this discussion, we must at 
least recognize the need of a plan of procedure, 
on broad, general lines, perhaps, for no really 
successful work can be accomplished without 
a plan. 

Hitherto, the course of study for auxiliary 
schools was planned by teachers who had taught 

138 



THECOURSEOFSTUDY 139 

in regular public schools; and they brought into 
the course their love for subject-matter. It goes 
without saying that much of the subject-matter 
taught in the regular school is entirely out of 
place in an auxiliary school. 

When, on the other hand, teachers from certain 
other institutions, (i e., institutions laying stress 
on physiological pedagogy,) seek to plan a course 
of study, they introduce too little subject-matter; 
they over-emphasize, perhaps, the formation of 
habits; they lay too great stress on the side of 
educating, and neglect the phase of instructing; 
auxiliary school pupils should be given a broad 
training, i. e., they should be taught many things. 

How much should be taught ? It would be 
ridiculous, of course, to set as high a standard 
for auxiliary schools as is set for the highest grade 
of regular schools. 

Perhaps, for a general rule, it would be wise 
to set as a standard that required by the middle 
grade of the regular school; in other words, 
the standard set is rather a low one, perhaps. 
Still, the auxiliary school pupil can pursue some 
subjects to a greater degree than pupils in the 
middle grades of the folk school; for example, the 
*' realistic studies." 

Let us endeavour to answer carefully this 



140 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

question, "What is the purpose of the auxiliary 
school ?" It is an independent institution for 
the education and instruction of a certain class 
of pupils. Its purpose is to fit these to become 
useful members of society, and for this reason, 
we should teach therein all those subjects which 
tend to arouse the individual will and the impulse 
to do. Through a wise choice of subjects, the 
overcrowding of the course of study must be 
prevented. 

Vvith this general aim in view, we may proceed 
to define the limit or scope to be kept in mind 
in each of the several subjects of the course. 

1. Religion. The auxiliary school pupil must 
be led to an understanding of the Divine God. 
He must be led to comprehend his duty to his 
neighbour, to himself, and to his God. As a 
help to his moral and religious feelings and 
actions, he must be led to accept the more impor- 
tant truths of the Christian religion, in order to 
become ready for confirmation. 

2. By means of practice in observation, speak- 
ing, reading, and writing, he should be led to 
comprehend and to reproduce, both orally and 
in writing, what he has seen, or heard, or ex- 
perienced. 

3. History. By the study of the lives of men 



THE COURSE OF STUDY 141 

and women who have served their home and 
country, he should be taught love of country; if 
possible, he should be taught the beauty of 
sacrifice for one's native land. 

4. Drawing is to be used in every class as a 
means of expression; in this way, it forms a 
standard by which we may follow the pupil's 
progress in the intellectual and aesthetic fields. 

5. Manual training. Like drawing, manual 
training, in its various branches, should lead 
or direct the activities of the children into the 
different lines opened up by other studies; and 
should aid, later on, in the choice of a life work. 

6. Singing and gymnastics. In the first place, 
both of these studies serve useful purposes from 
the standpoint of hygiene- Secondly, by their 
rhythmical character, they assist in the coordi- 
nation of movements and develop the child's 
will; and lastly, their aesthetic value, and their 
value as recreation can scarcely be overestimated. 

7. Home geography and general geography. 
(Heimatkunde und Erdbeschreibung) . The child 
should become familiar with his home environ- 
ment; and he must not be left ignorant concerning 
those parts of the world with which his home 
town or city or country has any intercourse. 

8. Arithmetic. Instruction in arithmetic should 



142 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

aim to make the pupils familiar with the simple 
problems Cand their applications) of daily life. 

9. Natural history and nature study. The 
child should be taught to observe the change of 
seasons in his home environment; and, in the 
interest of self-preservation, and his life with 
other human beings, the human body is to be 
made the subject of careful study. 

We have now stated the scope of each subject. 
Let us consider, next, the correlation and suc- 
cession of subjects. The old saying, "Proceed 
from the simple to the difficult," holds good in 
the auxiliary schools — the simple must always 
predominate in the choice of material. A mastery 
of the subject-matter outlined for regular elemen- 
tary schools is not to be thought of at all. But 
the striving toward a complete whole, the outlook 
toward something really finished, must be the 
goal, and must be evident throughout. Even 
if the amount of knowledge mastered is but small, 
it must be such as will aid in furthering the develop- 
ment of the growing mind, and result in forming 
a basis for the religious and ethical personality. 
In order to accomplish this end, it is by no means 
necessary that religious instruction should pre- 
dominate and all other subjects be made 
subordinate. Triiper, to be sure, undertakes 



THECOURSEOFSTUDY 143 

to apply the culture epoch theory as worked out 
by Rein. In accordance with his plan, Robinson 
Crusoe is chosen as the centre of instruction 
(for children from eight to ten) in nature study, 
home geography, modelling, drawing, singing, 
German, and arithmetic. Fuchs also recommends 
Robinson Crusoe as a basis for the work in 
auxiliary schools; and really, when one thinks 
of training for work and for will power and 
control, one must fall in with this recommendation. 
Robinson Crusoe is really a classical model for 
the weak-willed auxiliary school pupil. But his 
example would exert greater influence in a secluded 
institution of learning than in a public school. 
The pupils of the latter school see too much of 
the world about them, with its many devices, and 
as a result, Robinson Crusoe's helplessness does 
not appeal to them as one would wish. 

Taking into account the fact that many subjects 
of instruction must be treated independently (as for 
example, religion, history and arithmetic), it is 
impossible to present plans for closely connected 
and organically related wholes. It will be a 
difficult matter to make auxiliary school pupils 
understand certain aggregations, as family groups, 
work, trades, etc., which may perhaps be easily 
seen in his immediate vicinity. If, however, these 



144 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

social groups are included in the course of study 
as home phenomena, the auxiliary school is really 
preparing its pupils for practical life. 

No single worker has been able to solve the 
problem offered by the course of study for auxiliary 
schools. Much preliminary work must yet be 
done — as yet, there is no suitable reading book 
(attempts have been made in Leipzig and in Swit- 
zerland) — no primer and no arithmetic for the 
auxiliary school. Therefore the teaching corps 
of an auxiliary school is forced to consult frequently 
on what is to be done by the different classes, and 
to select the subjects of study. 

This tedious work will eventually lead to a 
selection of proper reading material, memory gems 
and arithmetical problems, which may sometime be 
gathered into a reader and a text book in arithmetic. 

A course of study for the last school year 
presents many difficulties. If we can succeed in 
giving it a proper "home background" as it were, 
we have accomplished much. The discovery of 
further connecting links between the various 
subjects will come about as a result of further care- 
ful work. 

The plan of the work of the first and last 
years (at Halle) is shown on the following 
pages. 






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gartens and 
famihes.) 

Fri. Seidel - 
The Motion 
Songs of the 
Froebel Kinder- 
garten. 

Die Be^veguns- 
spiele und Lie- 
der des Fr'dbels- 
chen Kindergar- 
tens. 

Wien und 
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This work is to serve as an aid 
to the learning of reading and 
writing. 

E Schulze — Der erste Lese und 
Schreibunterricht in dcr Hilfs- 
schule. Die Kinderfehler, 1903, 1. 
(First Lessons in Reading and 
Writing in Auxiliary Schools.) 


05 

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The school 
garden. What au- 
tumn has in store 
forus; harvesting, 
vegetables, fruits. 

The school 
garden. What 
autumn takes 
away from us. 
Signs of fall in 
flowers, trees, etc. 

The school 
garden in winter. 
The covering of 
snow. Christ- 
mas tide and its 

joys. 

The school 
building. The 
class rooms, their 
parts. Furniture. 

The school 
building. The 
classrooms. The 
furniture and its 
parts. 

The school 
building. The 
class rooms. The 
school yard. 


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How God 
causes the fruits 
to ripen. 

How God 

causes plants to 
die in the fall. 

The Christmas 
story. 

The conduct 
of pupils toward 
each other. 

^ The pupil's at- 
titude toward his 
teachers. "Obey 
your teachers and 
follow them." 

The relation of 
children toward 
their parents. 
" Children, obey 
your parents." 


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Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 
Feb. 

March 



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How to care 
for oneself when 
ill. 

Care in case of 
accidents. 

Our homes: 
heating and 
lighting. 

Railways and 
other means of 
communication. 




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The Danube, 
Bavaria, Wurt- 
emburg, Baden, 
Hesse. 

A general re- 
view of the Ger- 
man Empire. 

States border- 
ing on Gennany. 

A general view 
of the world . 
The German 

Colonies. 




Hi 


War for free- 
dom in Halle. 
Queen Loui.'.e. 

Important 
scenes in life of 
W'iUiam I. 

Rise of the 
German Empire. 
Frederick III. 

Life of the 
present royal 
family. 




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(d) Composi- 
tion. Children 
are encouraged to 
write theirexperi- 
ences. The work 
must be done 
carefully. Letter 
writing and sim- 
ple business 
forms also taught. 




(B O 

2 S 

ii 


The Youth of 
Jesus. His prep- 
aration for His 
work. 

The Miracles 
of Jesus. 

The teaching 
of Jesus. 

The sufferings 
of Jesus. The 
resurrection— 
the ascension. 
General view of 


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Dec. 

Jan. 
Feb. 
March 









games with 
ompaniment, 

with light 
In summer, 
s should be 
oors in the 

Gardening 
place of the 
stic exercises. 




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THECOURSEOFSTUDY 149 

When we compare the requirements of the course 
of study in the last class with the meagre ability 
of the auxiliary school pupils, and then compare 
the requirements of different auxiliary schools, 
we are forced to the conclusion that more unity 
should be evolved from the mass of diversity. 
We must also bear in mind this thought — "Shall 
the auxiliary schools prepare girls for domestic 
service, and the boys for manual labour?" Again 
— "How shall the auxiliary schools make provi- 
sion for the correction of faulty speech?" So 
many abnormal children lack the ability to speak 
properly. Many auxiliary schools have intro- 
duced special work in articulation — notably, the 
work of the Gutzmanns of Berlin. It may be 
well to mention here also, the work of Principal 
Godtfring (Auxiliary School at Kiel). Godtfring 
(who has repeatedly written on these subjects) 
advises that the speech be corrected before the 
children reach school age. He gathers into a sort 
of "speech Kindergarten" all children who will 
be of school age within a half year, and who do 
not speak correctly. 

In course of time, he gradually separates those 
who, in spite of drill, do not improve (of stuttering 
or stammering). 

The latter are then placed in special classes for 



150 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

curative treatment; in case of relapse, they are 
placed in "repetition classes'* for individual 
instruction and treatment. 

Godtfring's plan, which must be of inestimable 
value in auxiliary schools, has the support of the 
school authorities of Schleswig-Holstein. 



XI 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



BEFORE proceeding to a discussion of the 
methods of teaching to be employed in 
the auxiliary school, it will be wise to decide 
upon the amount of time to be allotted to each 
subject per week. 



SUBJECT OF STUDY 



Religious Instruction 

Arithmetic and Form Study 

German 

Writing 

Object Lessons 

Drawing 

History 

Geography 

Nature Study 

Singing 

Gymnastics 

Manual Training 

Totals 



2 

4(5) 
7 
1 

2'(1) 
2 



30 



II 



30 



CLASS 



III 



28 



IV 



26 



22 



In the summer term, certain slight changes are 
made in order to provide time for gardening; the 
tiuie devoted to manual training, singing, and 

ui 



152 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

gynmastics is shortened so as to allow four hours 
per week for the garden work. School excursions 
are also planned for. 

The methods of instruction followed in the 
middle and upper grades of the auxiliary school do 
not differ materially from those used in the regular 
elementary schools. But in the lower grades of 
the auxiliary school, the character of the instruc- 
tion given may vary somewhat from that in ele- 
mentary school classes of the same grade. Certain 
rules for the methods to be employed in auxiliary 
school classes have been formulated, as, instruction 
should be objective, concrete, individualistic, etc. 
But these rules would apply perfectly to instruc- 
tion in any grade, and to any class of pupils. 

The teachers of the lower grades in auxiliary 
schools must bear other considerations in mind. 
Sometimes pupils entering the lower auxiliary 
school grades seem utterly incapable of receiving 
any instruction whatever; sometimes they are 
already *'sick and tired" of school life. The 
teacher then has a double task to fulfil — she must 
not only seek to reawaken the child's slumbering 
powers, but she must also endeavour to prevent the 
child's mentality from coming to a complete stand- 
still. In addition, the teacher's instruction must 
be so planned as to exert the proper educative 



METHODS OF TEACHING 153 

influence on the child, through subject-matter 
simplified and adapted to the child's capacity. 
To fulfil all these demands is a matter of no small 
difficulty, and yet we must aim to do so if the 
auxiliary school is to be a success. 

If we aim to awaken the child's mental powers 
we must begin with play, which stimulates spon- 
taneously and yet harmoniously This play must 
so exercise the child's limbs, and his organs of 
sense, that they will learn in time to obey the will; 
and at length lead to such cooperation as will affect 
the desired purpose. If we were to begin at once 
by making definite demands upon the will, and 
requiring the accomplishment of certain definite 
work, the result would be failure — the pupil would 
be frightened and rendered more backward still. 

This spontaneous play of the sense organs and 
limbs gives the teacher his clue — the right idea 
to follow in exploring the child's circle of ideas 
and his degree of will power. The teacher can 
determine as Boodstein holds — to what degree 
the child's limbs move freely, and to what degree 
his sense organs assist in making impressions 
definite and exact. (Delitzsch strongly urges 
the making of an exact psychological diagnosis — 
as it were — in order to obtain information con- 
cerning the pupil's defects of sight, touch, hearing. 



154 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

taste, smell, sensitiveness to heat, cold and pain, 
as well as a careful examination of the power of 
association of ideas, of the powers of speech, of 
emotion, and of volition.) 

Speech often needs the most careful attention; 
intelligible and fluent speech is often the result 
of long and careful training in articulation, and for 
this kind of work the teacher needs special prepara- 
tion. Drawing and painting often give a more 
exact knowledge of what a pupil has gained through 
sense activity than mere talking does. By the 
former means of expression, the teacher can learn 
how the child's mind works, and he may deter- 
mine the pupil's progress from day to day by a 
study of his drawings. Similar insight into the 
mental life may be obtained by means of modelling, 
which is, of course, more difficult, and is for this 
reason often omitted from the course of study. 
It is so important however, that it should be intro- 
duced, if possible, even into the lowest grades. 
Stick-laying is much simpler; this is true also of 
the Froebel gifts and occupations. Note how 
delighted the little ones are when they have 
accomplished something! During the entire les- 
son period they must be kept actively working — 
must see, observe, feel, measure, arrange, compare, 
differentiate, hear, smell, taste -— or whatever 



METHODS OF TEACHING 155 

activity the work in hand may call for. At the 
same time they must be permitted to talk, at work 
and in play; they should be encouraged to express 
their opinions, and to ask and answer questions 

If the child during instruction strives to seek, 
to discover, or to convert impressions into any form 
of expression as action or movement, the auxiliary 
school is serving a double purpose. (1) It is 
shunning mere mechanical training which tends to 
reduce pupils to a sort of dead level and (2) it is 
developing the motor centres as the basis of intel- 
lectual and volitional life. The pupils therefore 
are not merely receptive and passive, but always 
active and interested. They really experience in 
their own mental lives what instruction gives them. 
The school garden and class excursions furnish 
abundant opportunities for development, and their 
value can scarcely be too highly rated. 

There are but few devices which will serve to aid 
the teacher in his work here. Probably toys and 
the Froebel gifts are the best and only ones for use 
during the earliest school year. Outside of these, 
the teacher must be all in all to his pupils, and his 
task is therefore by no means an easy one. For 
auxiliary school pupils even the primer is lacking — 
the primer which in the regular school so soon 
pushes itself in between teacher and pupil as a sort 



166 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

of "dividing wall of paper." It is to be hoped that 
the primer will be kept out of the lower grades of 
the auxiliary school. In these grades there should 
be no reading, no writing, no memorizing of primer 
material. Since there is to be little or no "drill" 
in the auxiliary school, let us postpone these as long 
as possible — they are so apt to destroy the child's 
interest in school work. Writing and reading 
may be introduced in the second year in connection 
with stick-laying. The memorizing of poems 
and stories can also be postponed until a later 
period. If, however, it is deemed wise to have 
children memorize, care must be exercised in the 
choice of suitable selections, and these should be 
committed to memory only after the child's interest 
in them has been thoroughly aroused. Suitable 
selections have been compiled by Trojan, Lowen- 
stein and others in Kinderlieder, Kindergarten, or 
Kinderlauben. 

In this way and by these methods, the teacher 
should seek to awaken the dormant mental powers 
of his charges. For other pupils who have suffered 
"shipwreck" in their school lives, and of whom 
it might almost truthfully be stated that they are 
incapable of further development, other methods 
must be adopted. The teacher must endeavour 
to work upon the child's previous experience as far 



METHODS OF TEACHING 157 

as possible; or to assist him to live through the 
experiences of others. Play, games, and interest- 
ing work properly presented, still have their value 
in arousing and stimulating ideas and actions, 
but the stimuli and the demands upon the pupils 
must be more vigorous and active. The method of 
of instruction also should be varied as much as 
possible, so that the child's dormant powers may be 
aroused, and his confidence in himself be developed. 

Continued stimulation, and change of exercise, 
and constant activity do not injure the weak intel- 
lect — let no one make the mistake of thinking so. 
If the teacher carefully watches his pupils, and does 
not demand too rapid progress of them, he will soon 
be encouraged. The progress shown will not be 
merely intellectual progress — it will extend also 
to the child's physical nature. 

We have noted above that, in the lower grades 
of the auxiliary school, few outside means of assist- 
ance were needed — - toys and the Froebel gifts. 
To these might be added, perhaps, illustrations of 
Bible stories and Stbwesand's picture of the family, 
as well as pictures from the magazines. As the 
pupils advance, the use of illustrative material 
grows — until at last, in the middle and higher 
grades, it will serve as many uses as in the regular 
schools. 



158 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

To the statement made in the early part of this 
chapter — that the methods of teaching in the inter- 
mediate and higher grades of the auxiliary school 
will differ but little from those used in the ordinary 
folk schools — we may now add the following 
statements: The general truth, "Proceed from the 
known to the related unknown," is well under- 
stood. This principle must be followed implicitly 
in dealing with auxiliary school pupils. When- 
ever possible, we must start out from the home, 
the school and its immediate environment, and 
the street. Only as we do this, will our instruc- 
tion be valid; as we follow this principle, so will 
our pupils grasp our instruction; mere verbal 
instruction must be avoided. 

Even then, it may be a long time before the pupils 
can reconstruct logically what has been taught them. 
They are too easily tired, and very often refuse to 
respond at all to the teacher's instruction, much to 
her surprise. It has been suggested, as a preven- 
tive of this, that the instruction follow the spiral 
method — but this plan of working through a 
subject must not be regarded as a pedagogical 
panacea. In the spiral method, connection between 
the old and the new material is always more or less 
mechanical, and constant return is made to the 
starting point. If we aim to implant merely a 



METHODS OF TEACHING 169 

knowledge of words, the spiral method may be 
used; but if, on the other hand, the teacher 
aims to educate, in the truest sense of the word, 
the spiral method of treatment may easily be 
dispensed with. 

If the teacher knows how to present the old in 
new form — by means of properly conducted 
reviews, through the gradual introduction of new 
material, or by viewing it from a new standpoint — 
then her pupils will surely make progress; it may 
be slow, but it will surely follow, for the children 
will not be wearied by mere ceaseless repetition, 
but will be kept constantly active and alert. 
The teacher must be active himself, must never 
weary, never lose hope. 

Abnormal children often lack clear compre- 
hension of time and space relations, motion, etc. 
Special instruction, then, should be directed toward 
the amelioration of this defect. The birthdays of 
the children should be remembered; school holi- 
days, etc., should be looked forward to; the time 
of day should frequently be read from the clock. 
Attention must be directed toward the accuracy 
and rhythm of movements, especially gymnastic 
movements. Music is of great assistance in this 
work; in Brussels, the use of music in this con- 
nection has led to the development of the so-called 



160 AUXIIilARY EDUCATION 

"eurhythmical" exercises, which are most heartily 
to be recommended. 

As a means of exercising the eye in determining 
relations of size and in estimating magnitudes in 
space, rulers or measuring sticks should be kept 
on hand in the class rooms and in the school- 
yard. These should be used to make actual 
measurements. The class excursions will fur- 
nish abundant opportunity for work in this 
direction. 

In closing, we must not omit to mention the 
thoroughly practical aspect which must be charac- 
teristic of auxiliary school instruction. This is 
especially true in the case of arithmetic. The 
teacher of arithmetic must illustrate the simple 
practical dealings into which the pupil will prob- 
ably be called to enter later on. There should be 
a "school store" with some sort of merchandise, 
weights, coins, etc., to familiarize the pupils with 
the operations of buying and selling. Later, it 
might be possible to study the questions of supply 
and demand, and the labor market from the news- 
papers. Of course, this would be done with 
the older pupils only, and would help them, 
perhaps, in deciding upon their choice of a voca- 
tion. Short compositions and letters may also be 
made to serve a good purpose, and, as a general 



METHODS OF TEACHING 161 

rule, children will write these well, because of their 
interest in the work.. 

The auxiliary school can also render valuable 
service to pupils preparing for confirmation by 
training them to become less awkward and 
ungainly, and by teaching them how to conduct 
themselves, not only on the street, but also in all 
places and under all conditions. 

The teacher must aim always to do his best for 
his charges — he must endeavour to make them 
as independent as possible, in order to keep them 
from making mistakes in later life. Experience 
has proved that the effort put forth is not in 
vain — very satisfactory results have already been 
accomplished. 



XII 

AUXILIARY SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 

IT HAS been stated again and again in these 
pages, that, while the auxiliary school should 
retain its character as a school, its instruction 
should always be truly educative in character. 
For there is not so much ground to be covered 
in the auxiliary school curriculum, and therefore 
it can exercise the sort of influence recommended 
above, provided that correct methods are adopted. 
Does memory work possess any special value for 
the auxiliary school child ? Memory work is 
more often a burden than a source of inspiration. 
Power to do is worth infinitely more than mere 
knowledge. But this power must be under the 
control of the will if we expect the child to become 
a useful member of society later on. 

(a) Discipline 

Just here we are not treating of education in 
general, but rather of what Maennel calls "physi- 
ological dietetics," or spiritual care, training, 

162 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 163 

and discipline. In reality, these are not very 
different in the auxiliary school; the peculiarities 
of its pupils, however, demand special attention. 
Auxiliary school pupils are weak, mentally and 
physically, and for this reason many people claim 
that kindness and consideration are the only 
measures to be used in disciplining them. It is 
true that auxiliary school teachers must show 
consideration, but, as in the case of normal pupils, 
kindness alone seldom brings about the desired 
result. This is true to a greater degree in the case 
of defective children. These children must occa- 
sionally come in contact with people of strength 
of character and firmness of will. If one constantly 
complies with their wishes, constantly submits to 
them, they will never learn to discriminate between 
the good and the evil, they will never learn to 
suppress their selfish desires. Therefore the dis- 
cipline of the auxiliary school should be more or 
less strict. 

Denials and warnings must also exert their 
influence on the developing character of the child, 
but these must never degenerate into a mere 
routine which will tend to deaden all feeling. 
Too much talking often fails of its purpose, 
and, as a general rule, impatience works lasting 
harm. Calmness and perseverance are absolutely 



164 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

necessary to success, and the more easily, if 
the teacher seeks to establish friendly relations 
between himself and his pupils. In the case 
of many children, self-confidence must be aroused, 
and constantly stimulated and supported until 
a certain amount of independence has been 
gained. 

Firmness of discipline does not consist solely 
in special regulations and warnings — the spirit 
of order, of punctuality, and accuracy in the daily 
work of the class room will be all-important in 
bringing about the desired results, especially if 
the teacher sets a worthy example by his care in 
the seemingly little details, and his faithful devotion 
to his work. 

In the description of the ideal school house, 
presented in a previous chapter, reference was 
made to the advisability of decorating class room 
walls with pictures, etc. The example set by 
teachers may vary, but art is unchangeable; and 
Professor Sante de Sanctis has shown (in his 
report of his asylum school at Rome) that works 
of art may be used to furnish models for auxiliary 
school children, who stand constantly in need of 
good examples. That the sesthetic may also serve 
a moral purpose has recently been demonstrated. 
Therefore, it is argued, school room decorations 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 165 

should consist of suitable pictures, etc., not alone 
for the mere purposes of decoration and to make 
the school room a pleasant place, but for the 
influence they may exert on the moral develop- 
ment of the pupils. 

In addition, however, the teacher will need other 
and more direct means of discipline. The most 
extreme measures should never be used first, even 
if their use would tend to shorten the process of 
discipline. In most cases, a carefully graded 
system of rewards will be more effectual than a 
graded scale of punishments which may be con- 
sistent enough, but which are carried out perfunc- 
torily. Encouragement and praise are great aids 
— they help to awaken self-confidence ; corporal 
punishment, on the other hand, often leads to bad 
results. For this reason, corporal punishment 
has been severely condemned by many persons 
besides physicians. Others advocate its use in 
certain cases. Ziehen says, "Corporal punish- 
ment should not be entirely prohibited; but 
children should never be struck on the head." 
Schwenk says, "If the teacher is certain that the 
pupil understands what has been forbidden, and 
yet, in spite of repeated commands, reminders, and 
warnings still persists in disobeying, then we must 
carry out the proverb, ' He who will not heed, must 



166 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

feel/ and we know from experience that an 
application of the rod often serves a useful purpose." 

(6) The Child's Physical Needs 

The physical condition of the auxiliary school 
pupil demands constant and most careful atten- 
tion. Bodily injury often hinders mental develop- 
ment, and for this reason, the auxiliary school 
physician must not only seek to establish the 
health of the children, but he must be on the look- 
out constantly. The teachers can render valuable 
aid, for they have abundant opportunities for 
observing the children in the classes, on the play- 
ground, in the garden. If they have trained them- 
selves to observe carefully, and have become 
acquainted with the fundamental principles of 
hygiene, they soon acquire the ability to note even 
slight changes in the appearance and conduct of 
their pupils. In cases of sudden illness, and in 
minor accidents, they may use the simple remedies 
provided in the medicine chest of the school. 
Much more could be accomplished for the pupils' 
good if the cooperation of the parents could be 
secured. We have already shown how the phy- 
sician can, upon occasion, influence them. Con- 
stant cooperation between parents, teachers, and 
physicians would accomplish a great amount of 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 167 

good for the pupils/especially where their physical 
condition is concerned. It is often a difficult 
matter, however, to influence the parents. There 
are numerous questions and problems which 
demand discussion and solution; many parents 
need to be awakened to the necessity of introduc- 
ing into their homes a more judicious method of 
living. Unfortunately, the difficulties are too 
numerous and too great to be influenced en masse, 
as it were. Consequently, there is perhaps no 
better way out of the problem than to invite 
individual parents to the school and to advise 
them there. Assistance may also be rendered by 
caring properly for delicate children, granting 
free transportation for those who live at a distance, 
and perhaps, even, in certain cases, furnishing a 
simple, warm breakfast to the pupils during the 
winter term. In Leipzig, the auxiliary school 
pupils receive a bath regularly, and a glass of 
milk and dinner are furnished daily. Perhaps it 
may be possible,fere long, to furnish tonics to those 
who are ansemic, and physicians testify that there 
are many such. The evident need of such tonics, 
in so many cases, and the equally apparent lack 
of understanding on the part of the parents, gives 
rise to the question, "Shall the auxiliary school 
retain its character as a day school, or shall it 



168 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

develop into a sort of boarding day school ? " 
Certain representatives of the so-called Heiler- 
ziehungsanstalten (institutions partly educational 
and partly remedial in character and aim) hold 
that the boarding school plan is by far the better. 
In this connection, Heller states, "It is heartily 
to be desired that many of the auxiliary schools 
may, in time, develop into regular boarding 
schools." Piper says, "In order to render a good 
answer to the question 'Auxiliary School or Insti- 
tution.?' many years must be devoted to the most 
careful and patient observation of individual cases." 
The author fully recognizes the value of auxiliary 
schools, but he also knows that many auxiliary 
school principals are striving to have their schools 
converted into boarding schools. Even now, they 
endeavour to secure the good results of the latter 
by having the pupils fed in school, and by keeping 
them in school as long as they can. They consider 
most seriously the question, "What becomes of our 
pupils when they leave us ? The longer the child 
can be kept under the influence of the school, the 
more effective will that influence be. These 
children are seldom properly cared for in their 
own homes; they see little that is good, and often 
receive lasting impressions of the most unwhole- 
some character." 



SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 169 

At Leipzig, however, Vvhei'e the children are not 
only fed, but also organized into classes for busy 
work (attendance here is voluntary) , the school still 
maintains its character as a regular day school. 
At Halle, and presumably at other places with 
fully developed auxiliary school systems, the same 
still holds and will probably continue. In spite 
of its many shortcomings, the day school affords 
greater opportunities for fitting the pupil to take 
his place in the world than any other type of 
institution. In school, the pupil must learn to 
defend himself against the evil influences of his 
comrades, of the street, and perhaps even of his 
home surroundings. He must not be hedged in 
too closely — neither must he be regarded as an 
idiot whose ego can never be firmly established. 

In addition to all of this, education in an insti- 
tution presents many difiicult problems. Not only 
is it very expensive, but it also makes heavier 
demands upon those employed as teachers. A 
regular day school for defective children demands 
a great deal from its teachers, and the results are 
by no means certain. It is very likely that they 
would be still more uncertain and unreliable in 
what Maennel has termed "closed institutions" 
{geschlossene Anstalten). As Gorke states, these 
latter often afford opportunity for the spread of 



170 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

various forms of vice, unless there is adequate 
supervision at all times. We recommend, then, 
that the auxiliary school preserve its character as 
a day school, retain its pupils in the school as long 
as possible during the day, and send them home 
to their parents at night. 



XIII 

THE PREPARATION OF THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL 
PUPIL FOR THE CHURCH, AND ESPECIALLY 
FOR CONFIRMATION 

IT HAS long been held that mental defectives 
possess a special gift for religion — and many 
have held that this was a sort of compensa- 
tion for their lack of ability in other directions. 
This idea has been supported time and again by 
the fact that mental defectives seem to possess the 
ability to memorize a great amount of religious 
material. As a result, such children have been 
given an overdose, as it were, of Bible history, etc. 
Ever since this instruction has been given by 
auxiliary school teachers, however, this "over- 
feeding" has been set aside. 

What Inspector Landenberger stated (in School 
and Annual Reports of Hygienic Institution for the 
Care of Mental Defectives and Epileptics at Stettin) 
is now probably recognized as true — i. e., that one- 
sided development of the memory (as, for example, 
with religious matter) works more harm than 

171 



172 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

good. This opinion has been confirmed by 
the well-known psychiatrists — A. Romer and 
W. Weygandt. 

If the teacher understands how to bring his pupil 
under the guidance of God by means of religious 
instruction; if he understands how to present the 
lesson of divine guidance and discipline largely 
by means of examples from his own personal 
experience, he does not require all of the means 
which are needful to the instruction of the normal 
child — as the history of the early stages of the 
development of God's kingdom, and the established 
truths in epic or lyric form. It is not necessary 
to expatiate upon these in preparing pupils for 
confirmation. The auxiliary school pupil will never 
become an active member of the church, nor will 
he ever take an active part in the discussion of 
religious beliefs; but he will show his Christianity, 
perhaps, just as everyone else who can only belong 
to the "silent in the land," and for this he must 
be prepared. 

We must first learn what ideas the pupils bring 
with them from the regular school. As a general 
rule, their knowledge of religious matters will be 
small; but they also bring with them varying 
powers of apprehension and of receptivity. It 
therefore becomes necessary to become thoroughly 



PREPARATIONFORTHECHURCH 173 

acquainted with each of the candidates if one wishes 
to benefit them as much as possible. 

Such careful individual treatment will be impos- 
sible, however, if the auxiliary pupil is placed in 
classes with normal children. When placed among 
normal children, the auxiliary school pupil often 
fails to answer even the simplest question, largely 
owing to unfamiliar surroundings. 

Above all things, mentally defective children 
should receive separate instruction for confirma- 
tion — they should not be prepared at the same 
time with others. 

Next comes the question — *' Who shall prepare 
this group of candidates from the auxiliary 
schools .P" Shall it fall to teacher or to pastor? 
In many cities — notably at Halle — this diflBcult 
task falls to the lot of a clergyman. Twice a 
week, the principal of the auxiliary school sets 
aside a room for this purpose — so that prepara- 
tion for confirmation becomes part of the regular 
school work, as it were. 

The clergyman is in every instance the young- 
est one of the parish in which the school house is 
located; as assistant pastor, he does not remain 
long in any one parish, consequently there are 
frequent changes. 

The young man is not examined by his superiors 



174 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

as to his fitness for the difiicult task assigned to 
him. He simply does the best he can; his own 
conscience is the only judge of the character of his 
work. 

Would it not be more desirable if the church 
authorities should make it a rule that only he who 
knows the pupils longest and most intimately 
should be assigned to prepare them for confirma- 
tion ? The older clergymen are usually burdened 
with the task of preparing several classes, therefore 
no extra work should be imposed upon them. 
But in the interests of all concerned, the instruc- 
tion should be assigned to the principal or to the 
senior teacher in the school. This plan has been 
adopted recently in Brunswick, Breslau, Kassel, 
Dresden, Gorlitz and Konigsburg. Usually the 
privilege is assigned by the church consistory, 
with the right of recalling it at any time, and the 
church authorities reserve the right of supervision. 
The city superintendent visits the school several 
times each year and holds an examination just 
before the confirmation. Three or four weeks 
before that event, the auxiliary school pupils are 
given over to the care of the parish clergyman 
for final instruction, so that they may take the 
vows with the normal candidates. 

At the beginning of the preparation period, the 



PREPARATION FOR THE CHURCH 175 

"personal record" of each auxiliary school candi- 
date must be given to the clergyman — so that he 
may use his influence with the children and their 
parents. 

The ceremonies of confirmation and first com- 
munion at Halle (in the presence of teachers of 
the school) were always impressive, but left this 
idea — that the children were being confirmed 
under special conditions. At the age of confirma- 
tion, auxiliary school pupils should be made to 
feel that they can live among others of their own 
age without noticeable differences. 

As material for instruction, the Command- 
ments should be used, and be treated mainly from 
the standpoint of their practical use in everyday 
life. Kielhorn has made excellent suggestions 
concerning methods of presenting them to mental 
defectives. In addition to the Commandments, 
we should teach the three Articles of the Creed, the 
Lord's Prayer, the command of baptism, and the 
meaning of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. 
The purpose of confirmation should be made as 
clear as possible to the candidates. 



XIV 

THE RELATION OF THE STATE TOWARD THE 
AUXILIARY SCHOOL 

IN ADDITION to making provision for the 
spread of education and culture, the modern 
State must make provision for the care of those 
who may be called inefficient from the economic 
point of view — i. e., mental defectives. So the 
auxiliary school is not to be regarded as a luxury 
or as an outlet for the additional expenditure 
of public money, but as a duty of the State. 
Naumann holds that "What is done to uplift the 
lowest class of the people may be regarded as 
insurance against a greater loss to the people as a 
whole." Auxiliary school pupils are drawn from 
among the poorest classes. Because of their 
inability to earn a livelihood unless they are 
specially trained to work, the community is often 
called upon to take care of them. Without train- 
ing, the defective becomes a *' do-nothing," or he 
develops into a vagabond — both not only unwel- 
come members of a community, but injurious to 
the body social. 

176 



RELATION OF THE STATE 177' 

The mental defective is well-known as the 
perpetrator of all sorts of misdemeanors and 
crimes; mental deficiency coupled with a distaste 
for work is a combination still more harmful. 
By neglecting to make suitable provision for these 
people, a community incurs extra expense (1) for 
the care of the poor, (2) for the suppression of 
vagrancy, or (3) for the maintenance of criminals. 
Viewed in this light, the auxiliary school is cer- 
tainly an insurance against greater loss. A com- 
parison of annual expenditures will probably 
show a saving; for if we succeed in making these 
children capable of earning a living and develop- 
ing into useful citizens, the community itself is 
strengthened. The establishment and mainten- 
ance of auxiliary schools is therefore not merely 
a duty, but also a social need. The larger cities 
and towns seem to have entered into a sort of 
friendly rivalry in the matter of establishing auxil- 
iary schools, and the State has been ready to 
recognize the newly organized institutions. 

Many ideal conditions are still to be realized 
in connection with these schools. In the first 
place, compulsory attendance at auxiliary schools 
should be enforced by the State; and compulsory 
school attendance should be extended to the 
fourteenth year. It has often been suggested that 



178 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

it would be wise to keep auxiliary pupils in school 
for a year after they have reached the age of 
confirmation. 

A more far-reaching suggestion, and one which 
will be most beneficial in its ultimate results, is the 
demand that a special "finishing" course covering 
several years should be established for defectives — 
attendance to be compulsory. It is an unwise plan 
to transfer auxiliary school pupils to the regular 
finishing schools : we should simply have a repetition 
of the conditions which held in the regular elemen- 
tary schools before the establishment of special 
classes for defectives. The difference in scholar- 
ship alone (between auxiliary school pupils and 
those from the regular schools) would be a hind- 
rance to the teacher of the finishing school, and 
it would probably be necessary to establish 
special classes in the latter to meet the needs of 
the weaker pupils. Religious instruction, reading, 
writing, and arithmetic would of necessity be con- 
tinued here, but certain economic and civic 
questions must not be neglected. 

The new school for defectives just alluded to 
has certain practical demands to meet. "Pre- 
paratory workshops" should be established in 
them; their aim should be to teach concretely 
the elements of those trades which could be most 



RELATIONOFTHESTATE 179 

successfully carried on by auxiliary school children. 
Mentally deficient pupils will seldom succeed in 
creating a meisterstiick — a masterpiece. We 
are accomplishing much if we succeed in making 
them fairly efiicient helpers in work like basket- 
making, book-binding, cabinet-making; or as 
assistants to masons, shoemakers, gardeners, 
farmers, bricklayers, etc. Many of the above- 
mentioned trades cannot be taught in workshops; 
visits can be made, however, to places where such 
work is under way; these should be followed by 
talks on the subject. Emphasis should, in all 
cases, be placed on practical training, so as to 
enable the pupils to become self-supporting if 
possible. 

By the establishment of the new "finishing" 
school for defectives, their necessity for the choice of 
a profession would be postponed for several years ; 
and at the end of that time, the pupil would prob- 
ably be able to make a wiser choice. It is always 
a more or less difficult matter for young people to 
choose correctly in the matter of a vocation. 
Auxiliary school pupils give their consent to almost 
any proposal placed before them, and their parents 
seldom evince any knowledge or interest in the 
matter. As a result, the decision often rests with 
the physician and the auxiliary school teacher. 



180 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

They can surmise, at least, what mental capacity 
and what physical ability the pupil possesses, and 
by reason of their advice they may be able 
to prevent the constant changes which the feeble- 
minded pupil is so liable to make. 

The task of securing suitable positions for these 
children is of great importance. Parents often 
seek the assistance and advice of the auxiliary 
school principal, after they have been repeatedly 
refused by employers. Occasionally the school 
is able to render service in this direction, but, as a 
rule, master mechanics are unwilling to accept 
apprentices from an auxiliary school. 

K. Richter says: *' Would that our master 
mechanics could be brought to understand that 
pupils sent out from our auxiliary schools are not 
nearly as incompetent as people are wont to believe; 
in truth, they are often more capable in practical 
affairs than boys from the country and elsewhere. 
The work of training auxiliary school apprentices 
pays, if the master does not leave the matter entirely 
in the hands of his assistants, but looks after the 
boys personally and bestows the necessary patience, 
kindness, and oversight upon them." 

We might make a similar statement concerning 
girls placed in factories and stores, or in families. 
It is to be hoped that employers will soon learn to 



RELATION OF THE STAT^ 181 

make use of the "personal records" of pupils 
referred to in an earlier chapter. The realization 
of this hope demands much of the philanthropic 
spirit. The State could render aid here — it 
might, for example, offer rewards to such employers 
as could prove conclusively that former auxiliary 
school pupils have so qualified in their employ 
as to be admitted to the guilds. 

Richter states that, on a special motion of the 
Royal Saxon Minister of the Interior, a reward of 
150 marks is granted in such cases. It is to be hoped 
that this example will be followed by other states. 
Associations in cities having auxiliary schools can 
exert a broader influence; in Leipzig, Konigsberg, 
and Berlin such associations already exist. 

The Association for the Care and Training of 
Mentally Deficient Children in Berlin studies the 
question by means of lectures and discussions on 
the instruction and training of defectives at home 
and abroad; it understakes to make a study of 
typical institutions and organizations; it visits 
schools and institutions devoted to the training of 
defectives ; and it has established a central bureau 
of information. 

Furthermore, the association endeavours to 
make provision for all who need it — 

(a) of care, food, clothing; 



182 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

(6) it seeks to establish day homes for children, 
where they are fed properly; it seeks to provide 
proper care for such children during the vacation 
periods ; 

(c) it endeavours to place them under suitable care 
in public or private institutions as need may be; 

(d) it looks after the appointment of proper care- 
takers and professional assistants who are to watch 
over the children, supervise the use of materials 
furnished, and advise parents, etc. 

For those who have completed school, the 
association seeks 

(a) to advise with parents and teachers concern- 
ing the choice of a vocation for the child before his 
discharge from the school; 

(b) to recommend reliable employers — men 
whose influence will be for the good of the children ; 

(c) to look after the care of such children as are 
not cared for in their own homes; 

(d) to establish courses, evening classes for tech- 
nical training, and homes for girl and boy appren- 
tices, where they may learn to spend profitably 
their spare time; 

(e) to render pecuniary assistance where needed; 
(/) to render aid in special cases of necessity. 
The work of the association is carried on by 

an executive council and at the general assembly, 



RELATIONOFTHESTATE 183 

Adults of both sexes, regardless of vocation, 
political party, or religion, as well as organizations, 
are eligible to membership. 

The Leipzig Association aims to gain a peda- 
gogical insight into the nature of defectives, and 
to discover the best means of instructing and 
educating them. The Association endeavours to 
accomplish its aim by arranging meetings and 
lectures; by the establishment of a library on the 
subject of defectives and their care. Meetings 
will embrace lectures, discussions, reports, model 
teaching, etc. 

The Auxiliary School Association at Konigs- 
berg has for its purpose cooperation with the 
auxiliary school in caring for the physical and 
mental development of feeble-minded children. 
It purposes to look after those who have been dis- 
charged from the school, those ill in the school, 
and mental defectives under school age. 

The Association aims also to disseminate inform- 
ation concerning the real value of the auxiliary 
school, and to weaken the public prejudice against 
it. The care of children who have left the school 
is worthy of note. The Association seeks to train 
these children to become self-supporting; to 
exercise continuous supervision over them; to 
grant them aid in case of iieed ; protection against 



184 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

the dangers arising from their weaknesses ; placing 
children under proper care when necessary. 

The care of under-age (school age) defectives 
consists in seeking to provide better care for them 
by the establishment of a sort of day nursery, and 
placing them in the auxiliary school as soon as they 
become eligible by reason of age. 

At Cologne, Frankfort-on-Main, and Brussels, 
associations aid in the care of auxiliary school 
pupils who have been discharged after confirma- 
tion. K. Richter (Leipzig) has suggested a plan 
of following the pupils who have left the schools. 
Every six years a set of questions is sent out to such 
of these former pupils as can be found. They seek 
information especially concerning the person's 
ability to earn a living; this work falls heavily 
upon the teachers, perhaps, but it is a fine method 
of following up former pupils and of testing the 
success of the school's work. 

Boys must be watched and cared for until they 
reach the age when they are required to enter the 
army. That such oversight is really necessary 
has been conclusively shown by H. Kielhorn. 
The fact that the mental condition of many who 
enter the army is not considered at all, is the cause 
of much of the so-called ill-treatment of soldiers 
of which we hear so often. Special examinations 



RELATION OF THE STATE 185 

of young men formerly trained in auxiliary schools 
should be required, but, indeed, it would be wiser 
to exclude all such from any sort of military 
service. 

A special standard of justice is recommended in 
the case of the feeble-minded. In auxiliary schools 
the pupils are taught to distinguish between right 
and wrong, good and bad; but, it is to be feared, 
that a constant and unchangeable moral standard, 
as such, can never be established for them. Owing 
to numerous reasons, it is much more difficult for 
these people to resist temptation than for normal 
individuals. Physical and nervous conditions often 
tend to distort the sense of right and wrong in the 
feebly endowed; they become distracted when 
the train of thought is broken by something out- 
side their power to will away; they often act with- 
out reflection; but they are easily guided when 
surrounded by those who understand them. 

In all cases, the judge must act from a sense of 
mercy and from a humanitarian standpoint. To 
regard the defective as absolutely responsible for his 
acts, and to punish him as a normal person, would 
be like punishing a cripple because he was born a 
cripple, a proceeding which would tend to further 
deform him. The penal code of the German 
Empire empowers the judge to take into account 



186 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

the mental condition of the culprit — "uncon- 
sciousness" or "morbid excitement" — states 
which tend to hinder free action of the will. 
No reference is made, however, to mental deficiency 
which may also have the same effect. At their 
twenty-seventh conference, the German jurists 
attempted to remedy this defect. Upon the advice 
of Professors Kahl and Leppmann (Berlin) the 
following recommendations have been made to 
the judicial authorities through Professors Cramner 
of Gottingen, Krapelin of Munich, and Kleinfeller 
of Kiel. 

1. Any person, who at the time of committing 
a criminal act is in such physical condition that 
his ability to judge of the punishable character 
of his acts is lessened, or his power to resist temp- 
tation is weakened, is to be punished according to 
the rules governing the punishment for petty 
offences. 

2. In the case of youthful offenders, it is recom- 
mended that use be made of the suggestions made 
by the twenty-seventh conference of jurists, i. e., 
that enducative measures under the care and 
direction of the State be substituted for penal 
measures. 

3. It is recommended that use be made of the 
rule permitting the postponement of punishments, 



RELATIONOFTHESTATE 187 

4. In penal institutions, special care must be 
given to mental defectives. 

5. Those who come under the head of mental 
defectives in Paragraph 1, should not be sent to the 
ordinary penal institutions, but to the State reform- 
atories; youthful offenders are to be sent to 
educational institutions. 

6. Mental defectives who are considered danger- 
ous to society at large, should be kept in suitable 
institutions until such time as they are considered 
fit to be discharged, even though their sentences 
have been set aside or fulfilled. 

7. Such discharge is merely provisional, and 
may be revoked at any time during a period fixed 
by law. 

8. The physical condition of defectives who are 
not considered dangerous to society at large, must 
be carefully guarded by the State after their dis- 
charge from the institutions, or upon remission of 
sentence; they may be placed under the care of 
families, placed in private institutions, or placed 
under the care of specially appointed guardians. 
The limit of such supervision should be fixed 
by law. 

9. Special means should be taken to determine 
the necessity and advisability of protective meas- 
ures for the benefit of mental defectives. 



188 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

On account of the far-reaching influence of 
these propositions, a very important part falls 
to the lot of the physician in connection with the 
administration of penal measures. It is to be 
recommended that the advice of the auxiliary 
school teacher be taken into account, when it comes 
to the question of passing judgment on a former 
auxiliary school pupil. The former life and the 
previous development of the pupil, as shown by 
the records of the auxiliary school, should, at least, 
receive consideration. This would often result in 
the adoption of milder penal measures, and would 
assist in the prevention of further misdemeanors. 
Perhaps aid could also be rendered by auxiliary 
school and other associations, whose members 
are in a position to secure legal advice. This sort 
of assistance will always be welcomed by auxiliary 
school workers. 

(Hilfsschule N. 3 publishes an account of the 
work of the committee for the legal protection of 
the feeble-minded. This committee was appointed 
in the recommendation of the German Auxiliary 
School Association.) 



XV 



THE TEACHING FORCE OF THE AUXILIARY SCHOOL 

THE TEACHERS AND THE PRINCIPAL 

OWING to the rapid development of the 
auxiliary school system, it has hitherto 
been impossible to secure properly trained 
teachers. The authorities willingly accepted 
volunteers from among the regular teaching 
corps. It was taken for granted that these teachers 
entered the field because of their interest in and 
love for the work, as the remuneration offered was 
certainly no inducement. 

The authorities felt that interest in the work 
was in itself an excellent equipment ; but they were 
anxious to secure competent and experienced 
teachers from among the best in the lower grades 
of the Volksschule, as these were deemed best 
suited to the new work. 

Experience proved the validity of this decision 
in the majority of cases; but on the other hand, 
many were disappointed and dissatisfied because 
of their lack of success. For the sake of all 

189 



190 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

concerned, it was deemed wisest that these latter 
should withdraw from the work; and the authori- 
ties, exercising greater care than heretofore, were 
anxious to secure recruits from among those who 
has taught in asylums for the deaf and dumb, 
institutions for the blind, etc. Unfortunately, 
however, there were but few applications from 
teachers so trained; consequently, the auxiliary 
authorities were forced to draw from the ranks of 
the regular grade teachers — and they decided to 
favour the younger element, because it was held 
that, after a teacher has taught pupils en masse, 
as it were, for a number of years, it was a diflScult 
matter for him to give the individual treatment so 
necessary in dealing with defective children. 
Moreover, it is difficult, often, to adapt oneself 
to the conditions existing in an auxiliary school, 
and many teachers would consequently lose interest 
in their work; lastly, many experienced teachers 
are too thoroughly imbued with the idea of dis- 
cipline and drill. Though these are very helpful, 
and indeed necessary, with ordinary pupils, they 
are almost entirely out of place with defective 
children, working more harm than good. The 
auxiliary school teacher must not be a stern dis- 
ciplinarian. Self-control is all important; sym- 
pathy is needed; impatience always works harm. 



THE TEACHING FORCE 191 

and neutralizes the effect of the teacher's influence. 
Again, the teacher who decides to enter upon the 
work of the auxiliary school should be physically 
strong; the teacher of nervous, fretful tempera- 
ment could never meet the demands made upon 
him, and his pupils are deprived of the pleasure 
which school should hold in store for them. 

Experienced teachers often are models in self- 
control and fairly radiate brightness and gladness ; 
but, alas, in most cases they prefer to remain in 
the Volksschule. Indeed, it has been found a 
difficult matter to obtain teachers for the auxiliary 
school work. 

Many times we have found teachers who seem- 
ingly met all our demands, and yet we could 
not be certain that a wise choice had been made. 
We have learned by experience that in no phase of 
education does experiment work more harm than 
among children who deviate from the normal. 
As a result, various plans were proposed by auxil- 
iary school teachers themselves, by means of which 
the right teachers might become qualified to take 
up the work of the auxiliary school. 

In the first place, it was recommended that new 
teachers be granted the privilege of making fre- 
quent visits to the classes of more experienced 
teachers — beginning with the work of higher 



192 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

classes and proceeding gradually through the 
middle grades to the lowest grades of the school. 
The visitor should be permitted to ask questions 
of the experienced teachers and, moreover, he 
should be permitted to attend the conferences of 
the auxiliary school teachers. 

Secondly, candidates for auxiliary school posi- 
tions should be advised to familiarize themselves 
with the literature of the subject, and to acquaint 
themselves with all branches of scientific know- 
ledge and technical skill which have any bearing 
on the subject. The following should be carefully 
studied ; 

1. Demoor: Die anormalen Kinder und ihre 
erziehliche Behandlung in Haus und Schule 
(Abnormal children and their training at home 
and in school). 

2. Fuchs: Schwachsinnige Kinder, ihre sitt- 
liche und intellectuelle Rettung (Feeble-minded 
children, their moral and intellectual salvation). 

3. Striimpell: Pedagogische Pathologic, oder 
die Lehre von den Fehlern der Kinder (Pedagogic 
pathology, or the science dealing with the defects 
of children). 

4. Heller: Grundriss der Heilpadagogik. (The 
foundations of pedagogical hygiene or corrective 
pedagogy.) 



THE TEACHING FORCE 193 

There is much of value, too, in the reports of the 
German Auxiliary School Association and in the 
reports of conferences on auxiliary schools and 
schools for idiots. Kinderfehler and the "Zeit- 
schrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und 
Epileptischer" also contain valuable information. 

The auxiliary school teacher will also familiarize 
himself with the history and organization of the 
auxiliary school system, and naturally interest 
himself in the social and scientific questions bear- 
ing on his chosen work. 

Psychology, hygiene, corrective pedagogy (how 
to correct defects of speech, etc.) will also claim the 
teacher's interest and attention. 

Lastly, it is recommended that the teacher 
follow a suitable course of lectures. Hitherto 
such courses have not been given to any great 
extent. 

In 1899, the first of these courses was established 
in Zurich. Kinderfehler reports that this course 
was attended by more teachers from pedagogical 
schools, than from auxiliary schools. 

In 1904 an attempt was made at Jena to establish 
a course especially adapted to meet the demands 
of auxiliary school teachers. The pedagogical 
departments of the so-called vacation schools, 
offered lectures on defects of character in childhood 



194 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

and youth, psychology, defective speech in child- 
hood, and brain physiology; demonstrations were 
given by reference to feeble-minded and defective 
children. 

These courses of lectures will retain their value 
as preparatory work for auxiliary school teachers 
until the State demands specially trained teachers 
{i.e., teachers trained in special institutions). 

The State can scarcely be expected to establish 
training schools for the training of auxiliary school 
teachers; neither can we expect the student in a 
normal school to decide whether he will teach in 
an auxiliary school or in the regular folk school. 
This might be possible if all institutions for training 
teachers gave a special course in pedagogy as 
applied to auxiliary schools. 

The authorities are working in the right direc- 
tion, but a further step is needed. To quote from 
a Prussian resolution of 1901, concerning the 
training of teachers: "We should give normal 
students a sound pedagogical training dealing with 
the normal development of the mental life of the 
child and its most important pathological aspects." 
It is to be feared that, owing to the already over- 
crowded curriculum, the introduction of new sub- 
jects will scarcely meet with favour. 

The normal schools cannot be expected to train 



THE TEACHING FORCE 195 

specialists — but we might arouse greater interest 
in the various phases of pedagogy as applied to 
auxiliary school children. In recent years pupil 
teachers have been accorded the privilege of visit- 
ing institutions for the deaf and dumb, the blind 
and idiots; they might now be permitted to visit 
an auxiliary school in session. This should be 
followed by a short introduction to the history, 
development, and literature of the auxiliary school 
system. The practice school should contain a 
section for the training of feeble-minded children. 
This would prove of inestimable value to the 
student, though the work might be said to prove 
too difficult for beginners, and for this reason the 
plan might fail. 

There is another plan worth trying. The state 
might establish, preferably in a university town, 
a centre for the auxiliary school teachers of the 
surrounding district. A model auxiliary school 
should be established here, and its teachers should 
be well grounded in the theory as well as in the 
practice of teaching. 

In connection with physicians, jurists, and 
others, these teachers should hold lectures annually 
for graduates recommended by the university 
authorities. 

A final examination — similar to that for 



196 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

teachers in intermediate schools or institutions for 
deaf mutes — should be given ; a successful 
examination would qualify the candidate to become 
an auxiliary school teacher. 

Hitherto it has been the custom to assign the 
head master of a folk school to the principalship 
of auxiliary schools. This man then has a double 
duty to discharge — for he retains his position as 
rector of the elementary school. Perhaps, later 
on, the question of appointing auxiliary school 
principals, as the result of an examination, will be 
considered. It goes without saying that the head 
master, who is interested in auxiliary school work, 
may be of great service in it, but in view of the fact 
that special preparation seems necessary, it seems 
wisest to have a special director for each auxiliary 
school. 

It is self-evident, too, that the director should be 
a pedagogue rather than a physician — the 
numerous problems which arise are best treated 
from the pedagogical standpoint, even when the 
physical is concerned. Certain questions will 
come up repeatedly for discussion at teachers' 
meetings — questions concerning organization, 
method, etc. The school physician should attend 
these conferences in order to lend his assistance. 

Up to the present, we have been referring to 



THE TEACHING FORCE 197 

male teachers only ; but we do not wish to exclude 
women from working among auxiliary school 
pupils. Though we do not deem it advisable to 
relegate the entire care, education, and training of 
defectives to women, as is done in certain lands out- 
side our own — we confess that it would be very 
unwise to dispense with their aid entirely. Curi- 
ously enough, there are few women teachers in 
the auxiliary schools of Germany — though for 
a long time their aid in teaching manual training 
and gymnastics to girls has been thought desirable. 
The influence exerted by the women teachers 
would be a decided gain to auxiliary school work. 



XVI 

THE PEDAGOGICAL VALUE OF THE AUXILIARY 
SCHOOL 

THE auxiliary school question possesses many 
phases and aspects. It interests the phil- 
anthropist, the man interested in political econ- 
omy, the jurist : it concerns also pastors, physicians, 
and military officers. Naturally enough, however, 
the teacher is the one for whom the question 
posseses the greatest interest. 

To teach in an auxiliary school is not a sinecure 
by any means. The teacher here is led by the 
very difficulties of his work to make a deep study 
of the subject. He learns the various methods 
of psychological observation and he discovers 
presently that a knowledge of the development of 
atypical children may aid in the understanding of 
normal children. So by careful study he becomes 
a pioneer in the field of genetic psychology, and 
his discoveries render valuable service to the field 
of general pedagogy. 

This splendid outlook is by no means an impos- 

198 



THEPEDAGOGICALVALUE 199 

sibility, for auxiliary school pedagogy is still in its 
infancy and the auxiliary school teacher is still 
able to work freely, without being hampered by 
too many restrictions; in addition to this, peda- 
gogy in general is undergoing constant reorgani- 
zation and adaptation. 

In confirmation of this statement, we have but 
to think for a moment of the changes which have 
taken place, in recent years, concerning the charac- 
ter of instruction in the first school years, in the 
matter of co-education, etc. 

The auxiliary school can serve as a pedagogical 
seminary in the widest signification of the term, 
because it possesses abundant opportunities for 
experiment and observation. It is almost unneces- 
sary to state that the auxiliary school is not to be 
regarded as a sort of station for pedagogic vivisec- 
tion, as it were — neither is the auxiliary school 
pupil to be regarded as the subject for experiment ; 
but the auxiliary school may well become a sort of 
higher school for all schools, and especially for the 
regular elementary school, by means of the efforts 
put forth by its excellently practical and theoretical 
corps of teachers. 



XVII 

THE EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN IN 
THE UNITED STATES 

EDUCATIONAL aims and ideals have under- 
gone many a change since the days 
when scholars withdrew from the world, and 
endeavoured to place themselves beyond all 
worldly influence of any kind. Through succes- 
sive stages of change and development, we have 
reached the point where our aim is a very broad 
one — we endeavour to study man not only in his 
relation to the Creator and to his fellow-men — 
we include, to a certain degree at least, all creatures, 
all natural phenomena, and even the inorganic 
world; but even yet, educational ideals are in 
process of evolution. Within a comparatively 
recent time, prominent educators have advanced 
the idea that education should aim to place man 
in possession of his "intellectual inheritances'* 
(Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler) ; more recently 
still, stress has been placed on fitting the "child for 
his environment ' ' (Bailey, Hodge, Bigelow) . Here- 

200 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 201 

tofore, and perhaps even yet, to a greater or lesser 
degree, we have been prone to hold to a sort of 
training which would fit the child for his future 
life as an " individual and as a member of society," 
as we have termed it. But the present life of 
the child in his present environment was almost 
entirely ignored. We have been wont, too, to lay 
too great stress on subject-matter, and we have 
paid but little attention to the child, whom we 
have regarded as a sort of little man, instead of as a 
child with peculiar feelings, emotions, and thoughts 
of his own. 

Fortunately, the trend of modern educational 
development is toward a training more than ever 
closely related to the pupil's daily life, and more than 
ever before in the history of man, we are taking into 
consideration the individual capacities and abilities 
of our pupils. This is perhaps the most import- 
ant step we have yet taken. 

As Americans, we are justly proud of our splen- 
did system of public education, which the State 
regards as the foremost factor in its advancement, 
and as its chief protection and safeguard. We 
have long recognized the truth that pupils on reach- 
ing the period of adolescence give evidence of 
varying abilities and inclinations, and, in our 
educational system, we have made allowance for 



202 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

this by providing different courses in our secondary 
schools and colleges. Child study, genetic psy- 
chology, and careful observation have convinced 
those who are interested in the matter that children 
in all stages of development present varying kinds 
and degrees of ability and capacity — physical 
and mental — and that differentiation in curricula 
and in training are fully as needful and important 
in the case of young children as in the case of their 
older brothers and sisters. 

In relation to this, Dr. James P. Haney writes: 
"We have grown accustomed to the thought of 
presenting to the normal adolescent various forms 
of instruction, especially adapted to his mental 
capacity, but we are not yet accustomed to the 
idea that to the normal or subnormal child should 
be presented material specifically adapted to his 
training and education." 

Miss Margaret Bancroft (Principal of the Ban- 
croft-Cox Training School of Haddonfield, N. J.) 
calls attention to the fact that "for long centuries 
the problems that face the teachers of normal 
children have been met and discussed, with vary- 
ing degrees of intelligence, and valuable additions 
have been made to the educational principles that 
obtain in our schools and colleges to-day. It was 
reserved for comparatively recent times to direct 



EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 203 

attention to subnormal types of intellect, and to 
formulate principles adapted to the much more 
complex and difficult task of developing the powers 
latent in the intellectual and moral constitution of 
a relatively small (though numerically large) num- 
ber of persons who come into the world handicapped 
by mental and moral deficiency. 

"Moreover, as the importance of preventive 
measures is yearly becoming more fully realized 
by the medical profession, so in the educational 
field it is being more clearly apprehended that the 
general dissemination of certain fundamental prin- 
ciples will lead to a constantly diminishing number 
of children of defective mentality." 

We are making progress in the right direction. 
Within a comparatively recent time, a number of 
cities and towns have taken up seriously the 
problem of the education and training of the 
exceptional child in the public schools — notably 
New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Provi- 
dence, Springfield, Mass. The term "exceptional " 
is a broad one, including all children who fall below 
the normal, physically, intellectually or morally — 
the deaf, the blind, cripples, " incorrigibles," 
"over age children," and finally the dullards and 
the so-called mental defectives. 

These children are taught in special classes of 



AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

from twelve to twenty pupils by teachers who, in 
many cases, have been specially trained for the 
work. 

The growth of an intense interest in scientific 
child study has been the most important factor in 
the development of these special classes. Dr. 
E. R. Johnstone (Superintendent of the School for 
Feeble-minded Boys and Girls at Vineland, N. J.) 
says: " We must use every endeavour in our special 
class work to remove from the grades all children 
whose physical or mental infirmities unfit them for 
normal life and progress with normal children. 

"We must remember that it is the normal child 
who suffers most from contact with the special 
child who is unable to follow the work of the class. 
The special child takes more than his share of the 
attention of the teacher, and, as a matter of fact, 
the special child does not benefit sufficiently to 
entitle him to this extra attention. The special 
class must be a clearing-house. To it will not only 
be sent the slightly blind and partially deaf, but also 
the incorrigibles, the mental deficients, the cripples. 
In the beginning, it must be expected that more 
than one of these types will be found in the 
same class room, and indeed all of them may drift 
in. The teacher must not become discouraged. 
As a better understanding comes, there will be 



EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 205 

closer differentiation, and separation will be more 
complete." 

Exceptional children are found in every com- 
munity, and the problem of deciding on those who 
need special training is a very delicate one. It is 
almost impossible to draw a definite line of dis- 
tinction between the normal and the exceptional 
child. Perhaps the greatest difference between 
them lies in what Dr. Haney has termed a "dif- 
ference in power to function. This difference is 
dependent on differences in structure, leading, 
perhaps, to what we call a lack of intellectual power. 
Stated in medical terms, the defective has suffered 
an arrest of development, the cause of which may 
be functional or central." The developmental 
defects of childhood and youth offer a splendid 
field of research and investigation which is of most 
vital interest to the physician, the teacher, and to 
the parent, and it is to be hoped that these will 
soon realize the importance of this work, not only 
to the success of the child's education, but to his 
physical and mental welfare. 

Defective children fall into so many types and 
call for such widely different treatment that it is 
unwise to group them together. We are all more 
or less familiar with several of these types. The 
commonest, perhaps, includes those cases arising 



206 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

from defects of the special senses, of sight or hear- 
ing, ranging from those totally blind or deaf, to 
those suffering more or less from minor defects 
which hinder their progress. The deaf and the 
blind have been provided for in numerous State 
and private institutions for many years. Recently 
we have realized the importance of correcting 
defects of sight and hearing in school children 
as a result of special study of the subject. In 
1902, the Department of Special Education of the 
National Educational Association, under the leader- 
ship of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, its chairman, 
endeavoured to bring about a closer cooperation 
between teachers at large, and those engaged in 
the education of children requiring special methods 
of instruction — i. e., teachers of the blind, the 
deaf, and the feeble-minded. The words of Dr. 
Bell in his opening address are full of suggestion. 
He calls attention to the large number of pupils 
in our public schools who suffer from defective 
sight or hearing. "The number having defective 
hearing,'* he says, "probably outnumbers the 
deaf-mute population. These pupils are not deaf 
enough for special schools. What is done with 
them, or for them ? They are drifting along in the 
public schools; and teachers do not know what to 
do with them. Now can not we, who teach the 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 207 

totally deaf, give you information who are teaching 
the partially deaf?" The same holds true in the 
case of pupils handicapped in their school work by 
defective vision. Dr. Bell suggests that an inter- 
change of ideas will be mutually helpful. Dr. 
Harris, continuing the discussion says, "I approve 
heartily of Dr. Bell's plan, by which mutual 
benefit will result to special and general teachers 
alike. The special teacher focuses his mind on 
particular difficulties and defects; then invents 
methods and devices by which the defects are 
removed; then he writes out his ideas relating 
to these devices, and general teachers learn 
from his experience what is valuable for their 
own uses." 

During the past year, a school for the deaf has 
been opened in New York City in connection with 
its public school system. The results of its first 
year's work have fully justified the wisdom of its 
organization. There is a movement on foot to 
establish shortly a public school for the blind. 
The tendency these days is to keep exceptional 
children in vital living relations with their families 
and friends, so that, as they grow older, they 
*'will find a natural adjustment in the social life" 
of their environment. 

A second type of the exceptional child embraces 



208 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

those suffering from a "disturbance of the blood- 
making apparatus" — children sufi'ering from 
anaemia, malnutrition, etc.; children who, owing 
to the presence of adenoids or other growths, 
suffer from lack of properly oxygenated blood, 
and are consequently dull or "backward." The 
best sort of treatment for these children includes 
plenty of good food, fresh air and sleep, to build 
them up physically. To quote again from Dr. 
Haney: "Once their blood is raised in quality 
and quantity, and their nutritive processes im- 
proved, they brighten mentally, and are able 
to retake their places with their normal mates." 

A third type is the so-called incorrigible child. 
Statistics show that the great majority of incor- 
rigible cases — especially among boys — is to be 
found in the third and fourth year grades of our 
elementary schools, among boys between the ages of 
twelve and fourteen. Why should boys of twelve 
and fourteen be found in third and fourth year 
grades, when presumably they have entered school 
at the age of seven or eight ? 

There are reasons physiological, and reasons 
psychological. Under the former, it may be 
stated that, as a result of careful investigation, we 
have learned that many so-called incorrigibles are 
suffering from defects of sight or hearing, or from 



EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 209 

the pernicious effects of malnutrition due to 
adenoids, or other post-nasal growths. When the 
defect has been remedied by supplying the child 
with "properly adjusted" eye glasses, or by 
alleviating the ear trouble, or by removing the 
obstructions in the pharynx, the child often under- 
goes a "reformation" which is little short of 
miraculous. 

In many cases, incorrigibility may be traced to 
the indifference, or negligence or poverty of the 
parents. We are endeavouring to overcome the 
former by seeking to gain the interest and coopera- 
tion of the parents in the work of their children, 
by means of parents' meetings, school exhibits, 
reports of various kinds, and even by visits to their 
homes. 

Truancy and the evil influence of depraved com- 
panions are other fruitful sources of delinquency. 
The compulsory education law, while not at all 
sufficient, is still a check on truancy. To offset 
the bad influence requires all the tact and skill of 
parents and teachers. In New York City schools 
(and, presumably, in the schools of other large 
cities), the question of the so-called **over age" child 
is a very important one. Many of these children 
are of foreign birth, and are handicapped at the 
start by their lack of knowledge of the language. 



210 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Placed in classes with younger pupils, they soon 
lose all interest in the school and its work, and fall 
behind. To obviate this, special classes have been 
organized. The course of study is adapted to their 
needs and the pupils are advanced as rapidly as 
possible. This plan does not always meet with 
unqualified success, but it is a step in the right 
direction. 

In a recent address before the Department of. 
Superintendence of the National Educational 
Association (held in Chicago in February, 1909), 
Miss Julia Richman, District Superintendent of 
Schools, New York City, stated that "all school 
types of 'badness' need classification. Many of 
these under careful classification would no longer 
be considered *bad."' There is much truth and 
significance in this statement. We are too ready 
to judge children's acts from the viewpoint of the 
grown-up, with established standards of right and 
wrong. x\s parents and teachers, we need a better 
understanding of child nature, and a broader 
sympathy. In all cases of delinquency, we should 
seek to ascertain the motive which prompted the 
deed. As Miss Richman says, "A boy's wrong 
acts are often due not so much to the deliberate 
choosing of wrong after he knows the right, but 
to the lack of any sense of right or wrong." Dr. 



EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 211 

E. R. Johnstone (of Vineland) has constantly 
sought to impress his classes with the same truth — 
"that children are not really bad, as a rule, though 
they may do wrong occasionally"; and in most 
cases the so-called wrong-doing is due to ignorance, 
or disease, or lack of training, or poor and undevel- 
oped judgment. The child is to be developed 
morally as well as physically and mentally; in 
time, his moral nature, aroused and developed and 
rightly trained, will establish standards of right 
and wrong; until that time comes, we must endea- 
vour to be patient, and to guide rather than to 
repress. The truly successful teacher studies her 
pupils as individuals, and adapts disciplinary 
methods to suit special typical cases. The Ger- 
mans have a saying, " Mann muss nicht alle Kinder 
liber einen Kamm scheren" — and this is as valid 
in the realm of ethical training, as in the physical 
or intellectual phases of the child's development. 
Let us therefore recognize the child's weakness, 
and seek, *'not to make correction in the shortest 
and easiest way, by might," but let us endeavour 
first of all to strengthen and uplift the child him- 
self, and to remember always, that "the boy is a 
boy, not a man." 

In the last analysis, a certain number of incor- 
rigible cases are found to be mentally deficient or 



212 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

feeble-minded. The defective may suffer from 
impaired vision or hearing, he may be anaemic, 
he may be a victim of certain orthopedic defects, 
but in addition, there is an actual lack of nerve 
tissue in the higher nerve centres, due perhaps to 
prenatal causes, or to the after effects of serious 
illnesses — for example, cerebro-spinal meningitis, 
or the cerebral complications of certain fevers. 
As a rule, the congenital defective shows unmis- 
takable signs of arrested growth; these may not 
be manifested in cases of acquired deficiency. 
Though these signs are more or less familiar to 
teachers who have paid even slight attention to the 
subject, an enumeration of those most common and 
most readily recognized may not be out of place. 

The most distinctive signs appear, of course, 
about the head and in the face. The hair is usually 
coarse, dry, and of scanty growth. The low "hair 
line" and fuzzy growth on the face are character- 
istic of a certain definite type. The occipital bald 
spot is usually indicative of rickets. 

The shape and size of the head must be taken 
into careful consideration. Note, for example, 
the "square" skull of the child who has been a 
victim of rickets; the large, round head of hydro- 
cephalus, in contrast with the small and character- 
istically shaped head of the microcephalic; the 



EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 213 

prominent frontal bosses, and "overacting frontal 
muscles." The skin of the defective is often cold, 
and clammy, or harsh, dry, and scaly. The com- 
plexion of certain types deserves mention, for 
example, the dull, pale colour of the cretin. Facial 
expression, or almost total lack of expression, are 
also characteristic in different types. The eyes 
may be narrow and slant as in the Mongolian type; 
inequalities of the pupils may denote that the child 
has been a sufferer from meningitis, or they may 
indicate serious lesions in the central nervous 
structure. The ears may be badly formed, irregular, 
badly set; there may be discharge or inflammation. 
The broad bridge of the nose, together with a certain 
lack of expression, and mouth breathing, usually 
indicate the presence of adenoids. Certain mal- 
formations of the palate and uvula, and irregulari- 
ties of the teeth are also significant. An examina- 
tion of the neck and throat may disclose glandular 
swellings due to tuberculosis or other causes. 
Physicians usually note also the thyroid gland and 
its size. Malformations and distortions of the 
limbs are common; one need but mention the 
curiously distorted limbs due to rickets ; the short, 
square, stubby fingers and squat hand of the cretin, 
and the curious little finger of the Mongolian type. 
But aside from all these physical defects, it is in 



214 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

the realm of the intelligence that the deficiency 
is most clearly shown. Imperfections in nervous 
structure lead to defective innervation, so-called. 
The proper nervous balance is lacking; coordina- 
tion is imperfect; the powers of judging and 
reasoning are weak and uncertain; voluntary 
attention and concentration are either impossible, 
or nearly so. The will is weak, the tastes dis- 
torted or exaggerated; the moral sense is often 
lacking or is perverted. As has been stated by 
many experts, the defective may often be trained 
so as to become self-supporting, but he seldom, 
if ever, becomes self-directing. 

The exceptional child in the puplic school has 
long been a problem unsolved. The line between 
the normal and the subnormal can scarcely be 
determined; often the difference is exceedingly 
slight. For the lowest types, provision has long 
been made by the State, but until recently, the 
slightly exceptional child has been sadly neglected. 

Let us return for a time to the problem of the 
subnormal and their care by the State. Within 
the confines of a single chapter, it will be impossible 
to present more than a mere outline of the origin 
and development of the care and training of the 
feeble-minded in the United States, with perhaps 
a brief description of a few of the most widely 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 215 

known and typical State institutions. We shall 
then take up briefly the question of the care and 
training of exceptional children in the public 
schools of a few of the larger cities. From the 
foregoing chapters, we have noted that the work 
among the defective classes formed the object 
of a sort of general philanthropic movement, 
which took its rise in Germany, Switzerland, and 
England, and extended rapidly through other 
European countries, and into the United States. 
Perhaps the first experiment in the training of 
imbecile or idiotic children in this country was 
that made in the American Asylum for the Deaf 
and Dumb at Hartford, Conn., about 1818. This 
experiment was fairly successful in its results, but 
it was of short duration. 

In 1846, Edward Seguin published a treatise 
on idiocy entitled "Traitement moral. Hygiene et 
Education des Idiots, et des autres Enfants 
arrieres," which has always been regarded as 
the standard text book on the subject. Dr. 
Seguin came to the United States in 1848, and 
visited the newly founded school for the feeble- 
minded at Waltham, Mass. Later, he went to 
Albany, where he rendered valuable assistance 
to Dr, H. B. Wilbur in the organization of the 
experiment^ school which eventually developed 



216 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

into the New York State Institution for Feeble- 
minded Children, now located at Syracuse, N. Y. 
As early as 1837 or 1838, Dr. Seguin had 
established a school for the care and training of 
idiots in connection with the Hospital for Incur- 
ables in Paris. His work met with success, and, in 
time, he received the approval of the French 
Academy. Much of Dr. Seguin's work is based 
on his theory that idiocy is a sort of prolonged 
infancy; in his work he endeavored to arouse, 
stimulate, and further the process of development, 
mental and physical. Dr. Seguin finally settled 
in New York City, where he continued his work 
until his death in 1880. The Seguin Physiological 
School for the Training of Children of Arrested 
Development is still conducted at Orange, New 
Jersey, by Mrs. Seguin, along the lines laid down 
by her husband. The school is a select private 
boarding school, accommodating only a limited 
number of pupils; much attention is paid to the 
physical and physiological problems presented 
by the various pupils. The school is located in 
a beautiful section of Orange; the visitor is 
impressed at once by the home-like atmosphere, 
the refined surroundings and the air of cheerful- 
ness and content which pervades. The Seguin 
School is one of the best known private institutions 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 217 

of its kind in this country. At the Haddonfield 
Training School for Those Mentally Deficient or 
Peculiarly Backward, conducted by the Misses 
Margaret Bancroft and Jean W. Cox, manual 
training, physical training, and music receive 
much attention. The pupils at this school receive 
a great deal of individual attention. 

Among the larger public institutions the follow- 
ing have been chosen as typical: The Massa- 
chusetts School for the Feeble-minded at Waltham, 
Mass., has the honour of being the first State 
institution of its kind in the United States. In 
1848, the Massachusetts Legislature resolved to 
grant a small annual appropriation — about $2,500 
— for experimental purposes. The school was 
opened in October, 1848, and, for a number of 
years was carried on in connection with the 
Perkins Institution for the Blind, under Dr. 
Samuel G. Howe and Mr. James B. Richards. 
Later, it became an independent institution, and 
as such was transferred to Waltham in 1889. The 
work of Dr. George G. Tarbell, who was superin- 
tendent of the institution from 1878-1883, marks 
a new era in the training of the feeble-minded. 
Dr. Tarbell held firmly to the value and necessity 
of manual occupations for defectives, especially 
such occupations as could be carried on out-of- 



218 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

doors; he also advocated the need of making 
special provision for the so-called institutional 
or asylum cases, i. e., those of lowest grade. In 
compliance with his repeated requests, a large 
tract of land was purchased near Templeton in 
1897, where the "colony" plan was adopted. 
The boys and men are sent to Templeton; the 
girls and women remain at Waltham. Though 
the colony plan is still in process of development 
many important truths have already been made 
manifest. It has been shown that a large number 
of men and boys, properly trained, and under 
adequate supervision, are capable of doing a 
considerable amount of work on the farms. The 
wisdom of retaining the men and boys on farms, 
and of training the women and girls to various 
domestic employments, has been demonstrated 
again and again. The economic value of this 
sort of training must not be lost sight of, though 
this is really of secondary importance ; in addition 
to this, however, we must remember that any 
sort of training which makes these people capable 
with their hands, or helpful in any way to them- 
selves or to others, will tend to their success, not 
only as individuals but as members of society. 

At Waltham and Templeton, the educatioo?il 
plan is as follows; 



EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 219 

I. The training of low-grade inmates. This 
may seem very elementary, but it is most important. 
From the beginning, attention is directed to the 
diet, care of the person, and clothing. Training 
of the voluntary muscles is systematically carried 
out by means of various exercises, in play, and 
even through hard work. The sense of rhythm 
and the love of music are called upon to aid in 
teaching these pupils to march, to run, etc., first 
in imitation of the leader or teacher, and later 
at the word of command. Strange as it may 
seem, competitive sports also play an important 
part in the training. Industrial and manual 
training also receive a good share of attention. 

II. Classes for the training of the special senses 
and voluntary motor power. Kindergarten 
material plays an important part in the sense 
training work. 

III. Kindergarten and primary grade classes. 
Careful grading is an important feature of the 
work in this department. The main purpose 
of all this training is found in the query, "What 
bearing will it have on the child's future.?" and 
the teachers keep constantly in view the danger 
of overdoing the purely book work. Colour, 
number, form, etc., are taught concretely by 
means of pegs, beads, blocks, coloured balls, etc. 



220 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

By means of simple exercises in weaving, cutting, 
folding, and the use of the peg-board, the fingers 
are trained to acquire a certain amount of dex- 
terity. Reading is taught also; primers and 
first readers form the text books. The more 
intelligent receive instruction also in spelling, 
English, and geography. Emphasis is everywhere 
placed on concrete instruction. 

The New York State Institution for Feeble- 
Minded Children, already referred to in connection 
with the work of Dr. Seguin, was established in 
1851, by an act of legislature. It was opened 
in Albany in that year, and transferred to Syracuse 
in 1855. Until his death in 1883, Dr. H. B. 
Wilbur remained at its head. Dr. Wilbur had 
previously opened a private school at Barre, Mass. 
(in 1848), a few months prior to the establishment 
of the Waltham school. The school at Barre 
thus claims the distinction of having been the 
first of its kind in actual operation. 

At Syracuse, the low grade pupils are trained 
to recognize colour and form by means of the 
simple kindergarten gifts. The form-board and 
the peg-board are used as at Waltham. Indeed, 
the kindergarten gifts have come to be regarded 
as indispensable; they afford excellent and 
abundant means of training the senses, and 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 221 

certain forms of coordination. Manual and 
physical training receive their full share of 
attention. 

The Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble- 
minded Children at Elwyn, Pa., was established 
about 1852. Its original home was at German- 



town, Philadelphia, and its first head was 
James B. Richards, who had been associated 
with Dr. Samuel G. Howe. In 1854 or 1855, 
through the combined efforts of Mr. Richards 
and Dr. Alfred E. Elwyn (whose name the place 
now bears), the institution was incorporated, and 
an appropriation of ten thousand dollars secured; 
in 1859, it was removed to its present location. 
As in other institutions of its kind, special provision 
is made for the training of children of the lowest 
grade. The usual methods are employed, the 
peg-board, lacing, stringing of beads, colour match- 
ing and simple cord sewing as in the kindergarten. 
Girls of slightly higher grade learn plain sewing, 
darning and simple basket-making; the boys 
are taught simple woodwork and weaving. 

Careful grading is a special feature at Elwyn; 
another prominent feature is the development of 
industrial training of various sorts. 

The Ohio Institution for Feeble-minded Youth, 
located near Columbus, Ohio, was founded in 



222 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

1857, by an act of legislature. Within recent 
years the State has purchased a tract of land for 
a colony. Certain features are peculiar to the 
school at Columbus. For example, the pupils 
are classified not so much according to the progress 
made, but rather as the result of a most careful 
study of their characters, temperaments, dis- 
positions, and abilities. Careful study has also 
been made of the question of fatigue; signs of 
weariness are closely watched, especially in the 
case of younger children, and new work is 
introduced to relieve it. 

The Indiana Institution for Feeble-minded 
Youth, located at Fort Wayne, Ind., was originally 
organized in connection with the Soldiers' Orphans' 
Home in 1879; it became an independent school 
in 1887. The children, on the whole, are graded 
or grouped in accordance with their ages or 
degree of endowment. Physical training, certain 
forms of manual training, and music receive 
special attention. 

At Vineland, New Jersey, are located the State 
Home for the Care and Training of Feeble-minded 
Women, and the New Jersey Training School 
for Feeble-minded Girls and Boys; both institu- 
tions were established in 1888. The Training 
School has maintained a six weeks' summer 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 223 

course for teachers for a number of years. The 
object of this course is to prepare teachers to 
take up the work of special classes in the public 
schools. The course is extremely practical in 
character, and has been productive of much good. 
A number of interesting features are peculiar to 
the Training School. For example, children 
"make their own readers." They are taken to 
points of interest, or shown objects of interest; 
later, they are encouraged to talk over their 
experiences, to illustrate them in simple drawings, 
and finally to write them. The result is regarded 
as the best of all materials to be used in learning 
to read. Some of these "readers" are crude, 
others exceedingly interesting. 

Certain forms of manual training, for example, 
the raffia and reed work, are very successfully 
taught. The work in wood carving is carefully 
graded. In the early lessons, the teacher traces 
an outline of some object on thin wood; the 
pupil's work consists in driving nails along this 
outline, or perhaps in punching with a die and 
mallet; later, he cuts away outside the lines. The 
aim of all the training given is to fit the children 
for life; as far as possible, individual abilities 
and capacities are considered. The system of 
discipline at Vineland deserves especial mention. 



224 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Dr. Johnstone preaches and practises the doctrine 
of encouragement, of hope, of cheerfulness. 
Special privileges are used as aids in discipline. 
The discipline "makes for happiness" first of 
all, and is "a guidance of energy from the bad 
into channels of helpfulness and good." Dr. 
Johnstone and his associates endeavour to make 
the institution, *'not a place of bars and tortures," 
nor yet "a prison, in which the world hides its 
mistakes and crimes"; but rather "a beacon 
light, set upon the rocks to guide the world aright, 
if the world will but open its eyes and see." 

The State Institution for the Feeble-minded of 
Western Pennsylvania, located at Polk, Venango 
Co., Pa., was authorized in 1893 by an act of 
legislature. The social side is emphasized here. 
In addition, the aim seems to be to adapt the 
work especially to the needs of the pupils. 

The founders of these so-called schools seem 
to have regarded the instruction and training of 
the feeble-minded as a means of curing, or at 
least ameliorating, their mental defects. In the 
early days, therefore, the aim of these schools 
was largely educational in character. This was 
but natural, perhaps. The marvellous changes 
occasionally brought about as a result of judicious 
treatment, training, and instruction, and the 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 225 

educability — within limits, to be sure — of some 
of the feeble-minded, led physicians, psychologists 
and teachers of defectives to believe that perhaps 
all feeble-minded pupils could be improved by 
such means. The need of making special pro- 
vision for the custody and care of a large number 
of comparatively non-improvable defectives (non- 
improvable as far as education proper is concerned) 
does not seem to have been recognized or under- 
stood until years of patient and painstaking effort 
had " demonstrated how large a part of the fields 
of beneficent activity lay outside of strictly school 
work, and how imperfect the results of even the 
best training must be. The original idea of 
curing imbecility had to be tried and found 
untenable before justice could be done to its 
subjects." (Dr. David F. Lincoln). All insti- 
tutions aim to train their inmates, even those of 
the lowest grade, in correct physical habits. This 
training has a two-fold value, it "raises them 
out of their brutishness to the level of social 
beings, fitting them to mingle in the daily relations 
of a home with the other inmates, and secondly, 
it is so continued as to form a check to the general 
tendency to degeneration of mind and body. The 
intellectual results of the training of the lower 
grades of the feeble-minded are therefore as 



226 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

distinct and valuable to them as in the case of 
those who learn to read and write." 

The first classes of defectives in our country, 
in connection with the public schools, were 
organized in Providence in 1894. A number of 
feeble-minded boys were selected from certain 
classes of backward and more or less troublesome 
pupils, and organized into three special classes, 
registering about fifteen each. Sense training 
and the correction of physical defects formed 
the basis of the work. 

In 1894, Dr. Thomas M. Balliet established 
a special class for defective children in Spring- 
field, Mass. Physical and manual training formed 
prominent features of the curriculum. 

In January, 1899, Mr. Seaver, superintendent 
of schools in Boston, organized the first special 
class in that city. Mr. Seaver's plan was to 
select trained teachers for the work. This has 
been carried out. The class registers are kept 
small — about fifteen. The course of study 
includes physical and manual training, music, 
simple work in number, and primary reading, 
using a primer as the text. Owing to the great 
differences in endowment and ability, no hard 
and fast rules of instruction are prescribed. 

As a result of a report on "Backward Children 



EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 227 

in the Public Schools," to the Civic Club of 
Philadelphia, a school for defective pupils was 
organized in that city in 1899. At first the school 
came under the general supervision of the Haddon- 
field School, and under the medical care of Drs. 
A. F. Witmer and C. W. Burr. Manual and 
physical training are emphasized. Medical 
examinations are carefully made. 

Through the courtesy of Dr. Willaim H. Max- 
well, City Superintendent of Schools of New 
York City, the following extracts from his Annual 
Reports are presented. These will show the rise 
and development of the work in New York City. 

"The question of providing special instruction 
in the elementary schools for pupils classed 
roughly as defective, backward, or dull children, 
has been considered for some time prior to this 
year, in a more or less desultory fashion. In 
Public School 1 (Henry Street), there has been 
for some years a class of children who showed 
a tendency to become habitual truants." This 
class was under the care of Miss Elizabeth E. 
Farrell, at present Inspector of Ungraded Classes 
in New York City. 

"In the Girl's Department of Public School 
77, also, certain experiments in classifying unruly 
children have been made" (under the direction 



228 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

of the principal. Miss Julia Richman, now District 
Superintendent) . 

"This year (1902), however, the problem has 
been considered more formally and in detail. The 
principals were requested to report on the number 
of such children in each school. They reported 
about eight thousand. A careful scrutiny of 
their answers indicates that the total number 
of children now in school, who should properly 
be classed as defectives, is not more than perhaps 
one-fourth of the number reported." The dif- 
ficulty of making a correct classification between 
the normal and the subnormal has been exper- 
ienced again and again. It is difficult, too, to 
give an adequate definition of the term "defective" 
or "feeble-minded." Generally speaking, the 
feeble-minded child is weak on all sides — in 
memory, perception, in power of attention; in 
ability to acquire language or number; in judg- 
ment and in power of comparison, in power of coor- 
dination, and usually also in bodily vigour. A 
lack of moral insight and moral control are often 
apparent. But while some typical cases may 
comprise all of these, in other cases the defect 
may be only relative, or even partial. Dr. Lincoln 
holds that "if there is one thing that is pretty 
generally acknowledged as characteristic of this 



EXCEPTIONALGHILDREN 229 

class, it is some form of weakness of practical 
judgment which renders its possessor unfit for 
independent life." 

Concerning the classification of abnormal 
children, Dr. Maxwell continues: "In dealing 
with children who come under the general titles 
'abnormal' or 'atypical,' it is necessary to dis- 
tinguish carefully between incorrigibles and truants 
and those who are to be considered as defective 
in mental ability. In dealing with this second 
group, a further subdivision of the various classes 
is essential to intelligent treatment. The follow- 
ing subdivisions seem to include almost all children 
of the atypical class: 

"(a) Dull children: those who are behind in 
any or all studies; those who exhibit abnormal 
precocity in one or more studies; those who have 
lost time because of irregular attendance or 
frequent transfer; those who are deficient in 
English because of foreign birth and residence. 

" (6) Defective children whose minds may be 
clouded: those whose defects are partial; those 
whose defects may be cured; those who, because 
of some abnormal growth, as adenoids in the 
throat, or deafness, are behind the other members 
of their class. 

" (c) Idiotic or permanently defective children. 



230 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

"In all cases, specially qualified teachers will 
be required, and in some instances the services 
of a trained nurse may be found necessary. But 
above all, I wish to emphasize the importance 
of classifyijig the children properly. In many 
cases, I think that diagnosis after careful exami- 
nation by a medical expert should be required 
as a preliminary to assigning pupils to special 
instruction, for children classified as being in 
subdivision (b). In determining cases falling 
under (c) the judgment of an expert should be 
required in every case." (Report of 1902.) It 
is just here that the German schools excel. 
Pupils are admitted to instruction in the Neben- 
Jdassen only after a careful medical examination. 

In 1903, there were ten special classes in New 
York City. The pupils were drawn from the 
regular grades and placed in special classes after 
examination by a physician connected with the 
department of physical training. In his report 
for 1903, Dr. Maxwell recommends the appoint- 
ment of a supervisor of special classes, "whose 
duty it shall be to supervise the work of the 
teachers, to assign pupils, and, above all, to train 
teachers for this delicate and important work." 

Attention is directed again to the need of care 
in assigning pupils to ungraded classes, as they 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 231 

are called in New York City. Before such 
assignment is made, the pupils in question "should 
be kept under observation by teachers and prin- 
cipal long enough to justify the formation of an 
intelligent lay opinion." (Assoc. Supt. Edw. L. 
Stevens in Annual Report for 1903.) 

It is interesting to note that in 1903 the Board 
of Education received a communication from Dr. 
A. M. Starr of the Vanderbilt Clinic, calling 
attention to the fact that the dispensaries and 
clinics would cooperate with the schools in the 
work among defective pupils. We can scarcely 
overestimate the value of this sort of cooperation. 
It was suggested also that classes for defective 
pupils should contain from twelve to twenty 
pupils. In the case of a class of twenty, the 
teacher should be provided with an assistant 
who was herself training for the work. Individual 
instruction was encouraged; efforts were made 
to secure teachers of exceptional ability. Attention 
was directed to the need of carefully adapted 
physical exercises ; to proper material conditions of 
the classroom, light, air, etc. ; to the necessity of 
proper nutrition; to the value of various forms 
of motor activity; to the necessity of frequent 
changes of exercise, and to the absolute need of 
frequent rest periods. 



232 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

It was further recommended that in all schools 
of sufficient size, one class should be set apart 
for exceptional pupils, and in these classes, there 
should be absolute freedom from the prescribed 
course of study. The teacher should be left 
free to do each day what is necessary for each 
pupil, without feeling the need of following the 
course of study, or the necessity of preparing her 
pupils for a particular grade. Teachers were 
urged to secure the cooperation of parents in 
the matters of nutrition, proper clothing, suf- 
ficient sleep, and general sanitary conditions. 

"Another important conclusion reached after 
a careful examination of many children, is that 
often a child is not bad or dull because of evil 
propensity, but from some inherited or acquired 
physical or mental defect which makes it impossible 
for him to be like his fellows." (Report for 1905.) 

During 1905, there were 1,245 examinations; 
of this number, 115 were examined a second 
time. In the examinations, three groups or 
types of observations were noted: first, physical 
signs (the stigmata of degeneracy) ; second, the 
degree of motor control; third, abstract mentality. 

In 1906, Miss E. E. Farrell was appointed 
Inspector of Ungraded Classes for the City of 
New York. The by-laws of the Board of Edu- 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 233 

cation provide that "the Inspector of Ungraded 
Classes, shall report to the Board of Superin- 
tendents on all applications of principals to 
establish ungraded classes, and upon the fitness 
of all teachers proposed for assignment to such 
classes. No child shall be admitted to, or removed 
from, an ungraded class without the approval 
in writing of the Inspector of Ungraded Classes, 
or the permission of the Board of Superintendents; 
and that no child shall be admitted to an ungraded 
class who has not been examined as to his phys- 
ical and mental condition by the Inspector of 
Ungraded Classes, and by a member of the physical 
training staff who shall be a physician." 

Experience has amply demonstrated the truth 
that two things are all-important for the successful 
conduct of ungraded classes: first, properly 
equipped class rooms, and secondly, teachers of 
"peculiar natural gifts who, in addition, have 
had the advantage of special training." 

The equipment suggested includes running 
water, movable seats and desks, benches for the 
work in manual training, and light apparatus 
for physical training. In 1907, higher standards 
were set for teachers of ungraded classes; as a 
result the Board of Education succeeded in 
obtaining the assistance of a number of teachers 



234 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

particularly adapted by endowment and training 
for work among exceptional children. 

The care exercised in the examination of pupils 
proposed for admission to ungraded classes has 
resulted most satisfactorily "in preventing normal 
children who were simply dull from being 
assigned to these classes, in suggesting to teachers 
the proper kind of work for individual children, 
and in determining when it is safe to remove a 
child from an ungraded class to a regular grade, 
or to permit him to attempt some form of manual 
labour." By July, 1907, there were forty-one 
regularly organized ungraded classes in New 
York City, and the City Superintendent urged 
principals to "familiarize themselves with the physi- 
cal signs in children which indicate mental defect.'* 

Through the courtesy of Miss Farrell and Dr. 
Isabelle Thompson Smart, medical examiner, 
the following forms are presented. 

The first is filled out by the principal of the 
school for each child proposed for admission 
to an ungraded class. Miss Farrell states: "x\.ll 
items in this report are necessary. Some, however, 
are more important than others, for example, 
the question of nationality. For one not familiar 
with national characteristics, it is an easy matter 
to take the heavy, sluggish response of the Slavic 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 235 

child as indicative of real mental inability, while 
the children of Latin Europe, with their lively 
shifting and seemingly inconsistent attention to 
school duties, seem to the teacher to be unfitted 
to regular school work. With nationality, the 
age and the regularity of the school attendance 
must be considered. The child, who is, perhaps, 
many years behind his grade, may be a mental 
defective. However, there is a possibility that 
his backwardness is the result of long-continued 
absence from school, due to accident, long illness, 
child labour, or to the vagrant habits of his 
parents. Again, in determining a child's place 
in the school, the kind of work he does best and 
easiest must be regarded as a factor." Inherited 
tendencies and adaptations due to environment 
must also be considered. 

"Under the heading 'Peculiarities,' much is 
revealed as to the individuality of the child." 
(Report for 1907.) 



OBSBRVATIONS ON CHILD — PROPOSED FOB AN UNGRADED 

CLASS 



P. S Borough. 

Name .Address 

Age Grade Nationality F M. . 



236 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Yrs. in U. S Home Conditions 

Health Record: Nutrition Bone Dis Eng. Gl. . . . 

Teeth Throat Nose Vision R L 

Hearing R L Nervous Disease 

School Record: Kn'dg. . . . terms lA. . . terms IB. . . . terms 
2A. . . . terms 2B. . . . terms 3A. . . . terms 3B. . . , terms 

Sp'c'l terms. School Att Cause of Irreg 

Absence in last two terms Attention Memory. . . . 

Oral Exp Hand AVork Phys. Tr Number 

Reading Writing Sp. Tastes 

Disposition Behaviour Habits 

Peculiarities 

Other Information 

19. . . 

Principal. 

The second is used by Dr. Smart on the occasion 
of her examination of pupils proposed by the 
principal. Upon the recommendation of Dr. 
Smart and Miss Farrell, the child is assigned to 
the ungraded class, or retained in the regular 
grades, as the case may be. 

Wlien medical or surgical care is found necessary, 
the principal is apprised of this fact by Dr. Smart, 
and an effort is made to secure the parent's 
cooperation in placing the child under the proper 
form of treatment. This is not always an easy 
matter, parents resent what they term " interfer- 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 237 

ence"; others are appreciative of the interest 
shown in the welfare of their children, and gladly 
follow the advice given them. 

II 

OBSERVATIONS ON CHILD PROPOSED FOR AN UNGRADED 

CLASS 

Special Med. Ex. P. S. Borough 

190 . 

Name 

1. Gen'l Condition 

A.Anatomical 

Cranium 

Facial Asymmetry 

Palate 

Teeth 

Tongue Lips 

Eyes 

Ears 

Limbs 

Skin 

Body in General 

B. Physiological 

1. Motor Function 

Tics Tremours 

Epilepsy Nystagmus 

Promptness Coordination 

Speech Inhibition 

2. Sensory Function 

Vision R . . . . L, . . .Hearing R. . . .L 



238 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 



3. Condition of Heart Pulse 

C. Pyschical 

Balance Proportion Moral Sense. 

Attention Memory Will 

Judgment Pecularities 

D. Development, Att. Diseases 



E. Family History: Births Miscar Deaths. 

Cause of Diseases F M 



Medical Examiner. 

The third blank is used by the teacher to 
report the progress of her pupils. It needs no 
special comment here, except, perhaps, to state 
that the teacher of an ungraded class must possess 
a certain insight, and a certain keenness and 
correctness of observation and judgment in order 
to render her records valuable. 

The blanks are made out in duplicate. One 
set is sent to the office of the Inspector of 
Ungraded Classes, and the second is kept on file 
in the ungraded class room, so that the teacher 
may at any time examine tlie records, as an 
aid to her work with the children in her 
care. The card often suggests the form of treat- 
ment, training, or instruction which will prove 
most beneficial. 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 839 
III 
PEDAGOGICAL RECORD 

P. S Borough 

19 19 

Name 






Sense Training 

Taste 

Smell 

Touch 

Sight. 

Hearing 

Physical Train, (imitation) . 
" " (command) 

Writing 

Industrial Training 

Language (oral) 

" (written) 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Nature Study 

Personal Habits 

Self-control 

Effort 

Gen'l Informination 

Power of Attention 

" Memory 

" Judgment 

Gen'l Health 

Fatigue 

Attendance 



Teacher 



240 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

In the early days of the work among exceptional 
children in New York City, an interested teacher 
would volunteer, perhaps, to take charge of an 
ungraded class. In case a volunteer was not 
forthcoming. Miss Farrell points out, a teacher 
was chosen because of her ability to discipline. 
This plan was far from satisfactory and *'the 
substitution of a better one was part of the general 
plan of organization made necessary by the 
increase in the number of classes for mentally 
defective children. With the extension of these 
classes came a corresponding increase in the 
number of teachers who w^anted to be assigned 
to the work." It was therefore deemed wisest 
to prepare eligible lists as the result of special 
examinations. The examination was open not 
only to teachers in New York schools, but also 
to those in public and private institutions or 
schools for the mentally deficient. The value 
of this was apparent. Except for the summer 
course for teachers at the Vineland Training 
School, and a special course on the Education of 
Defectives at the New York University School of 
Pedagogy, there is no means of training teachers 
for work among exceptional children. 

The examination, on purely professional lines, 
consisted of written, practical, and oral tests. 



EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 241 

The written test included methods of teaching, 
especially in reference to mentally deficient 
children, and principles of education. The prac- 
tical test disclosed the candidate's skill in manual 
work as sewing, drawing, etc., and in the oral 
test, the candidate proved her ability to govern 
a class of exceptional children. 

Experience has already demonstrated that the 
teacher of defective children should be peculiarly 
adapted by nature for the work; she must be 
resourceful, inventive, hopeful, wise, and tactful. 
She must possess the spirit of optimism to an 
unusual degree, for she meets daily with many 
discouragements ; and in addition she must possess 
patience, and what some one has termed the 
capacity for *' taking infinite pains.'* Dr. Wm. 
T. Harris stated on one occasion that a single 
visit to the school for feeble-minded in Lincoln, 
111., was worth far more to him than all he had 
gained from a long study of normal children. 
This is true. As Dr. Johnstone puts it, "The 
slow mental processes are laid bare. Methods 
of teaching any line of work may be studied in 
their minutest details. Here we may see the 
real value of music, of manual training, of the 
school garden, of physical training, of the kinder- 
garten, and of child study. The difference in 



242 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

training normal and feeble-minded children is 
one of degree, not of kind." All operations 
move slowly in the case of the defective, and 
because of this, we can study them more closely 
and completely, and thus gain much that will 
be of utmost value in dealing with normal children. 

Statistics prove that there are many so-called 
backward children in the United States; in the case 
of many of them " the mental or physical infirmities 
are of so slight a nature that by special training 
they may become useful factors in the family and 
society." It is for these children, also, that 
special classes have been organized. Left to 
themselves, or in the regular grades, they 
degenerate mentally and physically, and alas! 
too often morally; under special training, they 
are able in most instances to catch up again 
with their normal brothers and sisters. 

The special class has taught us many a valuable 
lesson. 

(a) It has demonstrated the value of physical 
training in correcting minor physical defects. 

(6) It has proven at every step of the way, 
that industrial training has a decided value and 
that, sooner or later, normal children must *'get 
away from books and learn to do." 

(c) It has demonstrated the need of making 



EXCEPTIONALCHILDREN 243 

children cheerful, happy, and contented in their 
work. If children dislike school or school work, 
there may be something wrong with the school 
and its work. At Vineland they say "Happiness 
first" and all else will follow. 

(d) The need of a closer and more sympathetic 
vital relation between teacher and child as a 
result of careful observation and study. 

In addition, it has been shown that in the 
development of the work of teaching exceptional 
children in separate classes, the regular classes 
have been benefited. The teacher of the latter 
can devote her time and energy to her pupils 
without hindrance from those who have hitherto 
been called incumbrances. The work among 
defective children is a decided advance. These 
unfortunate children form a "portion of the 
material furnished by the community" for instruc- 
tion in the schools. The schools have now to 
a certain degree adapted themselves to the needs 
of all children, and undertaken the task of training 
and educating all classes. "All this tends toward 
making the public schools a more efficient instru- 
ment for the education of all the children of the 
State," and is but another upward step in the 
cause of education and the uplifting of mankind. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 
CHAPTER I 

1. H. SoTTZNER. — "Uber Schulen fiir schwachbefahigte 

Kinder. Erster Entwurf zur Begriindung derselben." 
C. F. Winter, Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1864. (Sug- 
gestions for the establishment of schools for defective 
children.) 

2. W. Reinke. — " Die Unterweisung und Erziehung 

schwachsinniger Kinder." L. Oehmigke, Berlin, 1897. 
(The instruction and training of feeble-minded children.) 

3. " Nebenklassen fur schM^achbegabte Kinder in Berlin." 

Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1900, 1901. 
(Auxiliary classes for feeble-minded children in Berlin.) 

4. P. VON GiZYCKi. — "Der Unterricht fiir schwach- 

sinnige Kinder." Vossische Zeitung, Sonntagsbeilagen 
October, 1903. (The instruction of feeble-minded 
children.) 

5. O. HiNTz. — "Die Erziehung abnormer Kinder in 

Normalschulen." Neue Bahnen, 1897, IV. (The 
education of abnormal children in normal schools.) 

6. O. HiNTz.— "Welche padagogischen Massnahmen eignen 

sich fiir den Unterricht solcher Kinder, welche durch 
die Volksschule nicht geniigende Forderun gerfahren ?" 
Xioewenthal, Berlin, 1898, (What pedagogic measures 



246 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

are best suited to such pupils as are unable to 
make satisfactory progress in the Volksschule ?) 

7. H. Piper. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir die schwachsinnigen 

Kinder." Deutsche Schule: Monatsschrift, KHnck- 
hardt, 1897. 3. Leipzig. (The care of feeble-minded 
children.) 

8. P. Tatzner. — " Die Entstehung des Gedankens, beson- 

dere Schulen fiir schwachsinnige Kinder zu errichten." 
Zeitschrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und 
Epileptischer, 1900. (The origin of the idea to estab- 
lish special schools for the feeble-minded and epileptic.) 

9. A. WiNTERMAN. — "Die Hilfsschulen Deutschlands 

und der deutschen Schweiz." Beyer und Sohne 
Langensalza, 1898. (German and Swiss Auxiliary 
Schools.) 

10. J. P. Gerhardt, — "Zur Geschichte und Literatur des 

Idiotenwesens in Deutschland." Selbstverlag, 1904, 
Alsterdorfer Anstalten bei Hamburg. (The history 
and literature of the education of idiots in Germany.) 

11. C. ZiEGLER. — "Hilfsschulen fiir Schwachbefahigte." 

Reins Enzyklopadisches Handbuch. (Auxiliary 
schools for defective pupils.) 

12. "Berichte iiber die Verbandstage der Hilfsschulen 

Deutschlands." (Reports of the meetings of the 
German Auxiliary School Association.) 

13. H. BosBAUER, L, MiKLAS, H. ScHiNER. — "Haudbuch 

der Schwachsinnigenfiirsorge." Teubner und Graeser, 
Leipzig und Wein, 1905. (The care of mental 
defectives.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 247 

14. Annual Report of the Special Schools Sub-committee, 

London School Board, 1903. 

15. Schools for the Defective ClasseSj Washington, D.C. 1903. 

16. A. ScHENK. — "Reisebericht." Kinderfehler, 1900. 

17. K. RiCHTER. — "Die Bestrebungen fiir die Bildung und 

Erziehung schwachsinniger Kinder in Italien." Zeit- 
schrift fiir die Behandlung Schwachsinniger und 
Epileptischer, 1901, 7-10. (The work among the 
feeble-minded in Italy: their care and training.) 

18. " Mitteilungen des Vorstandes des deutschen Hilfs- 

schulverbandes. " Die Hilfsschule. (Reports of the 
directors of the German Auxiliary School Associations.) 

19. W. Walker. — "Die neusten Bestrebungen und Erfahr- 

ungen auf dem Gebiete der Erziehung der Schwachen." 
Dissertation. Solothurn, 1903. (Observations con- 
cerning the results of the most recent experiments in 
the realm of training for the feeble-minded.) 



CHAPTER II 

J. H. WiTTE. — " Volksschule und Hilfsschule." Thorn, 
Lembeck, 1901. (Elementary schools and auxiliary 
schools.) 

Barthold. — "Die Idiotenanstalten und die Hilfsschulen, 
eine Grenzregulierung." Zeitschrift fiir die Behand- 
lung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, December, 
1901, Burdach, Dresden. (Asylums for idiots, and 
auxiliary schools.) 



248 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

3. "Bericht iiber den ersten Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen 

Deutschlands," am 12-13 April, 1898, Hanover. 
(Report of the first meeting of the German Auxiliary 
Association.) 

4. KiELHORN. — " Die Erziehung geistig zuriickgebliebener 

Kinder in Hilfsschulen." Osterwieck, Zickfeld, 1897. 
(The training of mentally defective children in auxiliary 
schools.) 

5. K. RicHTER. — "Die Leipziger Schwachsinnigenschule." 

Leipzig, Hesse, 1893. (The school for mental defect- 
ives at Leipsig.) 

6. M. GoBKE. — " Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig zuriickgebliebene 

Kinder." Ein Reisebericht. Breslauer Statistik, 1900. 
(The care of mentally deficient children.) 

7. L. Laquer. — " Die Hilfsschulen fiir schwachbefahigte 

Kinder, ihre arztliche und soziale Bedeutung." Berg- 
mann, Weisbaden, 1901. (Auxiliary schools for 
defective children, from the medical and social 
standpoints.) 

8. O. Altenburg. — "Die Kunst des psychologischen 

Beobachtens." Reuther and Reichard, Berlin, 1898. 
(The art of pyschological observation.) 

9. L. Strumpell. — "Padagogische Pathologic." Ungleich, 

Leipzig, 1897. (Pathology from the standpoint of 
pedagogy.) 

10. J. L. A. KocK. — "Die psychopathischen Minder- 

wertigkeiten in der Schule." In A. Bauer, Das 
Kranke Scbulkind. Enke, Stuttgart, 190^, (Psy- 
pbop^tbic defects i^ school children,) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 249 

1. J. Tr^per. — "Die Anfange der abnormen Erschein- 
ungen im kindlichen Seelenleben." O. Bonde, Alten- 
burg, 1902. (The first signs of abnormal development 
in the child's mental life.) 

12. G. Leubuscher. — "Die schularztliche Tatigkeit in 

Stadten und auf dem Lande." Verhandlungen der III 
Jahresversammlung des Allgemeinen Deutschen Ver- 
eins fiir Schulgesundheitspflege. Teubner, Berlin und 
Leipzig, 1902. (The medical inspection of schools in 
cities and in smaller communities.) 

13. L. Laquer. — "Uber schwachsinnige Schulkinder." 

Marhold, Halle, 1902. (Feeble-minded children of 
school age.) 

14. Th. Benda. — "Die Schwachbegabten auf den hoheren 

Schulen." Teubner, Berlin and Leipzig, 1902. 
(Feebly-endowed children in the higher schools.) 



CHAPTER III 

1. H. Keilhorn. — "Die Organisation der Hilfsschule." 

Bericht iiber den III Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen 
Deutschlands. Beyer und Sohne, Langensalza, 1901. 
(The organization of auxiliary schools.) 

2. F. W. MtTLLER. — "tJber den Schwachsinn." Bericht 

iiber den III Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutsch- 
lands. (Feeble-mindedness.) 

3. O. Berkhan, — "Uber den angeborenen und friiher- 



250 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

neuste Auflage. (Feeble-mindedness — congenital and 
acquired.) 

4. Th. Ziehen. — "Die Geisteskrankheiten des Kindes- 

alters." Berlin, Reuther und Reichard, 1902. (The 
mental disorders of childhood.) 

5. A. LiEBMANN. — "Die Untersuchung und Behandlung 

geistig zuriickgebliebener Kinder." Berlin, Berlinische 
Verlagsanstalt, 1898. (The examination and care of 
mentally deficient children.) 

6. Fr. Frenzel. — "Die Hilfsschulen fiir schwachbegabte 

Kinder." Hamburg, L. Voss, 1903. (Schools for 
feeble-minded children.) 

7. L. Laquer. — "Uber schwachsinnige Schulkinder." 

Halle, C. Marhold, 1902. (Feeble-minded children of 
school age.) 

8. L. Laquer. — "Die arztliche Feststellung der ver- 

schiedenen Formen des Schwachsinns in den ersten 
Schuljahren." Miinchen, Seiz und Schauer, 1901. 
(Medical opinion concerning the various phases 
of feeble-mindedness in children of the first school 
years.) 

9. N. Stadelmann. — " Schwachbeanlagte Kinder, ihre 

Forderung und Behandlung." Miinchen, 1904, 
Arztliche Rundschau. (Weak-minded children, their 
training and advancement.) 

10. W. Reinke. — " Die Unterweisung und Erziehung 

schwachsinniger Kinder." Berlin, L. Oehmigke, 
1897. (The instruction and training of feeble-minded 
children.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 251 

11. DeLiTzscH. — "Das schwachbegabte Kind im Hause 

und in der Schule." Bericht iiber den IV Verbandstag 
der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. (The feeble-minded 
child at home and in school.) 

12. F. Grote. — "Konnen Kinder zwangsweise der Hilfs- 

schule zugefiihrt werden?" (In Bericht as above in 
11.) (Can we compel feeble-minded children to attend 
auxiliary schools?) 

13. J. Moses. — "Das Sonderklassensystem der Mann- 

heimer Volksschule." Mannheim, Bensheimer, 1904. 
(The plan followed in auxiliary classes in connection 
with the Volksschulen at Mannheim.) 

14. A. SiCKiNGER. — "Der Unterrichtsbetrieb in grossen 

Schulkorpern sei nicht schematisch-einheitlich, sondern 
differenziert-einheitlich." Mannheim, Bensheimer, 
1904. (The course of study should not be uniformly 
systematic, but elastic.) 



CHAPTER IV 

1. ScHMiD-MoNNARD. — "Ursachen der Minderbegabung 

von Schulkindern." Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheits- 
pflege, 1900. (Causes of mental deficiency in school 
children.) 

2. J. TBtrPER. — "Die Anfange der abnormen Erschein- 

ungen im kindlichen Seelenleben." Altenburg, Bonde 
1902. (The first signs of abnormal development in the 
child's mental life.) 



252 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

3. H. BosBAUER, L. MiKLAS und H. Schiner. — " Hand- 
buch der Schwachsinnigen Fiirsorge." Leipzig and 
Wien, Teubner und Graeser, 1905. (The care of 
mental defectives.) 



CHAPTER V 

1. G. Leubuscher. — "Staatliche Schularzte." Reuther 

und Reichard, Berlin, 1902. (Public school phy- 
sicians.) 

2. G. Leubuscher. — " Die schularztliche Tatigkeit in 

Stadten und auf dem Lande." Verhandlung der III 
Jahresversammlung , des Allegmeinen Deutschen 
Vereins fiir Gesundheitspflege. B. Teubner, Berlin 
und Leipzig, 1902. (The medical inspection of schools 
in cities and in sm Her communities.) 

3. Th. Ziehen. — "Arztliche Beobachtung." Reins 

Enzyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, I. (Med- 
ical inspection.) 

4. A. Bauer. — "Das kranke Schulkind." Enke, Stuttgart, 

1902. (The delicate pupil of school age.) 

5. G. GoRKE. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig zuriickgeblie- 

bene Kinder." Genossenschafts-Buchdruckerei, Bres- 
lau, 1900. (Care of backward children.) 

6. F. Cassel. — "Was lehrt die Untersuchung der geistig 

minderwertigen Schulkinder ini IX Berliner Schul- 
kreise." Colbentz, Berlin, 1901. (Lessons drawn 
from the examination of mentally defective pupils, 
11th Berlin School District.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 253 

7. K. Doll. — " Arztliche Untersuchungen aus der Hilfsschule 

fiir schwachsinnige Kinder zu Karlsruhe." Macklot, 
Karlsruhe, 1902. (Medical inspections in the auxiliary 
school for feeble-minded children at Karlsruhe.) 

8. WuLFF. — " Stellung und Aufgabe des Arztes in der Hilfs- 

schule." Bericht iiber den ersten Verbandstag der 
Hilfsschulen Deutschlands." (The status and the 
problem of the physician in the auxiliary school.) 

9. K. ScHMiD-MoNNARD. — "tjber den Einfluss der Schule 

auf die Korperentwicklung und Gesundheit der 
Schulkinder." Voss, Hamburg und Leipzig, 1898. 
(The influence of the school on the health and physical 
development of school children.) 

10. J. Gelpke. — "Uber die Beziehungen des Sehorgans 

zum jugendlichen Schwachsinn." C. Marhold, Halle, 
1904. (Sight in its bearing upon the feeble-mindedness 
of children.) 

11. H. Griesbach. — "Uber den Stand der Schulhygiene in 

Deutschland." Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft 
deutscher Naturforscher und Arzte, 1903. (School 
hygiene in Germany.) 



CHAPTER VI 

1. D. TiEDEMANN. — " Bcobachtungen iiber die Entwick- 
lung der Seelenfahigkeiten bei Kindern." Altenburg 
1897, Bonde. (Observations on the development of 
mental deficiencies in children.) 



254 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

2. L. Strumpell. — "Die Verschiedenheit der Kinder- 
naturen." Leipzig, 1894, Bohme. (The different types 
of child nature.) 

5. Sauppe. — "Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des kindlichen 

Geistes." Jahrbuch des Vereins fiir wissenschaftHche 
Padagogik, 1876. (The development of the child's 
mind.) 
4. Emminghaus. — "Die pyschischen Storungen im Kindes- 
alter." Tubingen, Laupp. (Psychic disturbances 
in childhood.) 

6. O. Altenburg. — "Die Kunst des psychologischen 

Beobachtens." Berlin, 1898, Reuther und Reichard. 
(The art of psychologic observation.) 

6. J. Truper. — "Schema zur Feststellung des leiblichen 

und seelischen Zustandes eines Kindes." Kinder- 
fehler, 1897, 5-6. (How to determine the physical 
and mental condition of a child.) 

7. Ch. Ufer. — ^ "Das Wesen des Schwachsinns." Langen- 

salza, Beyer. (The nature of feeble-mindedness.) 

8. Lay. — " Experimentelle Didaktik." Wiesbaden, 1903. 

(Experimental Didactics.) 

9. Delitzsch. — " Grundlinien zur psychischen Diagnose in 

der Hilfsschule." Sachsische Schulzeitung, 1904. 
(Principles underlying psychological diagnosis in 
auxiliary schools.) 

10. C. Kannegiesser. — "Ubersicht iiber die bei Abfas- 

sung der Charakteristiken schwachsinniger Schiiler zu 
beobachtenden Merkmale." Zeitschrift fiir Schul- 
gesundheitspflege, 1898, p. 247-255. (Synopsis of the 



BIBLIOGRAPHY iSB 

criteria to be observed in making a summary of the 
distinctive characteristics of the mentally deficient.) 

11. Fr. Frenzel. — "Das Personalheft im Dienste der 

Schwachs'mnigenbildung." Zeitschrift fiir die Behand- 
lung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1902, 9-10. 
(The value of the personal record in the training of the 
feeble-minded.) 

12. Klabe. — "Anieitung zur Abfassung von Schiiler- 

charakteristiken. " Leipzig, 1901, Merseburger. 
(Introduction to the observation of the mental charac- 
teristics of school children.) 

13. K. Richter. — " Ubersicht der bei Abfassung von 

Charakteristiken der Kinder einer Hilfsschule zu 
beobachtenden Merkmale." Zeitschrift fiir Behand- 
lung Schwachsinniger, 1894, 5-6. (A survey of the 
signs to be observed in making observations on the 
characteristics of auxiliary school pupils.) 



CHAPTER VII 

1. EuLENBERG UND Bach. — " Schulgcsundheitslehre. 

Das Schulhaus and das Unterrichtswesen vom hygien- 
ischen Standpunkte aus." 2 Bde., 1900, Berlin, Heine. 
(The school building and the plan of instruction from 
the standpoint of hygiene.) 

2. W. Siegert. — " Bau des Schulhauses." Reins Enzy- 

klopadisches Handbuch, Bd. 1. (The structure of 
the school building.) 



256 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

S. R. BoTTGER. — "Uber Zentralisation der Hilfsklassen 
fiir Schwachbefahigte." Deutsche Lehrerzeitung, 
1904, p. 42-43, und Berieht uber die XI Konfe- 
renz iiber das Idioten und Hilfsschulwesen. Stettin, 
1904. (The consolidation of auxiliary classes for 
the feeble-minded.) 



CHAPTER VIII 

1. O. Berkhan. — "Uber die Griindsatze, nach denen 

Hilfsklassen einzurichten sind." Zeitschrift fiir die 
Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1881, 
1882. (The principles underlying the establishment 
of auxiliary classes.) 

2. A. Darr. — "Uber Errichtung von Klassen fiir Schwach- 

sinnige." Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, 1894, 
p. 213. (The establishment of classes for the feeble- 
minded.) 

3. H. KiELHORN. — "Die Organisation der Hilfsschule." 

Berieht iiber den II and III Verbandstag der Hilfs- 
schulen Deutschlands, 1899-1901. (The organization 
of the auxiliary school.) 

4. F. LoEPER. — "Uber Organisation von Hilfsschulen." 

Kinderfehler, III, 6. (The organization of auxiliary 
schools.) 

5. K. Klabe. — "Entwurf zur Ausbau der Hilfsschule zu 

Halle." Merseburger, 1900. Leipzig. (The plan of 
the auxiliary school at Halle.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 257 

6. F. Frenzel. — "Die Organisation der Hilfsschule." 

Medizinisch-padagogische Monatsschrift fiir die 
gesamte Sprachheilkunde, 1902, V. (The organization 
of the auxiliary school.) 

7. R. BoTTGER. — "Uber Zentralisation der Hilfsklassen fiir 

Schwachbefahigte." Allgemeine deutsche Lehrerzei- 
tung, 1904, p. 42, 43; und Bericht uber die Konferenz 
fiir das Idioten und Hilfsschulwesen. Stettin, 1904. 
(The consolidation of auxiliary classes for defectives.) 



CHAPTER IX 

1. Heller. — "Uber Ermiidungsmessungen bei Schwach- 

sinnigen Kindern." Zeitschrift fiir die Behandlung 
Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1898, 12. (Deter- 
mining fatigue among feeble-minded children.) 

2. H. Schiller — "Der Stundenplan." Berlin, 1897. 

Reuther und Reichard. (The programme.) 

3. Th. S. Flatau. — "Die geschichtliche Entwicklung 

der TJberbiirdungsfrage an der Hand der amtlichen 
Verordnungen und Gesetze." Zeitschrift fiir padago- 
gische Pyschologie und Pathologic, 1899, p. 197. 
(The historical development of the question of fatigue 
— or overburdening of pupils, gathered from a study of 
successive regulations.) 

4. E. Kraepelin. — "Zur Hygiene der Arbeit." Jena, 

1896, Fischer. (The hygiene of work.) 

5. A. Baur. — " Die Ermiidung der Schiiler im neuen Lichte. 



258 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

Berlin, 1902, Gerdes und Hodel. (Fatigue among 
children from a new point of view.) 
6. H. Griesbach. — " Uber den Stand der Schulhygiene 
in Deutschland." Verhandlung der Gesellschaft 
deutscher Naturforscher und Arzte zu Kassel, 1903, 
Leipzig, Vogel, 1904. (The status of school 
hygiene in Germany.) 



CHAPTER X 

1. "Lehrplan fiir die Hilfsschule fiir Schwachbefahigte 

in Leipzig. " Leipzig, Hesse und Becker, 1903. (The 
course of study for the auxiliary school at Leipzig.) 

2. "Lehrplan fiir die Hilfsschule fiir schwachbefahigte 

Schulkinder zu Braunschweig." Zeitschrift fiir die 
Behandlung Schwachsinniger und Epileptischer, 1881, 
1882. (The course of study of the auxiliary school for 
the feeble-minded at Braunschweig.) 

3. O. BooDSTEiN. — "Die Hilfsschule fiir Schwachbefahigte 

zu Elberfeld." Elberfeld, 1901, Friderichs. (The 
auxiliary school for the feeble-minded at Elberfeld.) 

4. Tatzner und Fruggmayer. — "Die Nachhilfeschule 

zu Dresden- Altstadt." Dresden, 1901, Passler. (The 
auxiliary school at Dresden.) 

5. M. GoRKE. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig zuriickgebliebene 

Kinder." Breslau, 1900. Genossenschafts-Buch- 
dnickerei. (The care of children of arrested develop- 
ment.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 259 

6. A. ScHMiTZ. — "Zweck und Einrichtung der Hilfs- 
schulen." Langensalza, 1903, Beyer und Sohne. 
(The aim of auxiliary schools.) 



CHAPTER XI 

1. K. Barthold. — "Der erste vorbereitende Unterricht 

fiir Schwach- und Blodsinnige." Gladbach und Leip- 
zig, 1881, Schellman. (Preliminary instruction for the 
feeble-minded and imbeciles.) 

2. H. KiELHORN. — " Die Organisation der Hilfsschule." 

(Der Unterricht.) Bericht iiber den IV Verband- 
stag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. Hanover, 1903, 
Schrader. (The organization of the auxiliary school — 
its instruction.) 

3. O. Meyer. — " Welche Besonderheiten ergeben sich fiir 

den Sachunterricht in der Hilfsschule ? " Bericht iiber 
den IV Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. 
(What particular studies are best adapted for concrete 
instruction in auxiliary schools?) 

4. "Das Rechnen auf der Unterstufe der Hilfsschule." 

Bericht iiber den IV Verbandstag der Hilfsschulen 
Deutschlands. (Arithmetic in the lowest grade of the 
auxiliary school.) 

5. Strakerjahn. — "Der erste Sprechunterricht in der 

Hilfsschule." Bericht iiber den II Verbandstag der 
Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. (Preliminary instruction 
in language in the auxiliary school.) 



260 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

6. K- Basedow. — " Handf ertigkeitsunterricht fur Knaben 

in der Hilfsschule." Bericht iiber den III Verbandstag 
der Hilfsschulen Deutschlands. (Manual training — 
in broader sense — for boys in the auxiliary school.) 

7. M.Endeblin. — "Erziehung durch Arbeit." Leipzig, 

1903, Frankenstein und Wagner. (Training through 
work.) 

8. CoLOZZA. — "Psychologie und Padagogik des Kinder- 

spiels." Deutsch von Chr. Ufer, Altenburg, 1901, 
Bonde. (The psychology and pedagogy of play.) 

9. Groos. — "Die Spiele der Menschen." Jena, 1897, 

Fischer. (Play.) 

10. A. FucHS. — " Schwachsinnige Kinder, ihre sittliche und 

intellektuelleRettung." Giitersloh, 1899, Bertelsmann. 
(Feeble-minded children — their moral and intellectual 
salvation.) 

11. BooDSTEiN. — "Fromme Wiinsche fiir den weitern 

Ausbau der Hilfsschule." Vortrag. Dresden, Passler. 
(The extension of the auxiliary school system.) 

12. Th. Heller. — " Grundriss der Heilpadagogik. " 

Leipzig, 1904, Engelmann. (The outlines of physi- 
ological pedagogy.) 

13. Henck und Traudt. — " Schafft frohe Jugend." 1904, 

Thiiringer Verlangsanstalt von Henck und Traudt. 
(A plea for a happy childhood.) 

14. Demoor. — "Die anormalen Kinder und ihre erziehliche 

Behandlung in Haus und Schule." Deutsch von Chr. 
Ufer. Altenberg, 1901, Bonde. (Abnormal children, 
their training at home and in school.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 261 

15. H. BosBAUER, L. MiKLAs und H, Schiner. — "Hand- 

buch der Schwachsinnigenfiirsorge." Leipzig und 
Wien, 1905, Teubner und Graeser. 

16. Delitsch. — " Grundlinien zur psychischen Diag- 

nose in der Hilfsschule." Sachsische Schulzeitung, 
1904. (The principles underlying psychological 
diagnosis in auxiliary schools.) 

17. "Bericht iiber die XI Konferenz flir das Idioten und 

Hilfsschulwesen." (Report of the Eleventh Con- 
ference for the study of jproblems concerning idiots 
and the feeble-minded.) 



CHAPTER XII 

1. BooDSTEiN. — Fromme "Wiinsche fiir den weiteren 

Ausbau der Hilfsschule." Dresden, Joh. Passler. 
(The extension of the auxiliary school system.) 

2. Heller. — "GrundrissderHeilpadagogik." Leipzig, 1904, 

Engelmann. (Outlines of physiological pedagogy.) 

3. ScHWENK. — "Die Zuchmittel in unseren Anstalten." 

Verlag der Idsteiner Anstalten, 1899. (Corrective 
measures in our institutions.) 

4. "Denkschrift betreffend die besonderen Verhaltnisse und 

Bediirfnisse der Anstalten fiir Idioten und Epilep- 
tische im Rahmen der Irrengesetzgebung." Idstein, 
Grandpierre, 1904. (Report concerning the special 
situation and needs of institutions for idiots and 
epileptics.) 



262 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

CHAPTER XIII 

1. H. KiELHORN. — "Der Konfirmandenunterricht in der 

Hilfsschule." Langensalza, 1904, Beyer und Sohne. 
(Preparation for confirmation in auxiliary schools.) 

2. V. LiJHMANN. — "Der Konfirmandenunterricht bei 

Geistesschwachen." Bericht iiber die XI Konferenz 
fiir das Idioten und Hilfsschulwesen. Idstein, 1904, 
Grandpierre. (Preparation of the feeble-minded for 
confirmation.) 



CHAPTER XIV 

1. H. KiELHORN. — "Der Schwachsinnige Mensch im offent- 

lichen Leben." Zeitschrift fiir Schwachsinnige und 
Epileptische, 1889, 3-5. (The defective in public life.) 

2. H. KiELHORN. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig Minder- 

wertige." Jugendfiirsorge, 1901, VII. (Care of men- 
tal defectives.) 

3. Fr. Naumann. — "Der Wert der Schwachen fiir die 

Gesamtheit." Buchverlag der "Hilfe," Berlin, 
Schoneberg, 1902. (The value to the community of 
the feeble-minded.) 

4. A. Damaschke. — "Aufgaben der Gemeindepolitik." 

Jena, 1901 , Fischer. (The problems of the community.) 

5. Schmid-Monnard und A. Hartmann. — "Soziale Fiir- 

sorge fiir Kinder im schulpflichtigen Alter." Jena, 1904, 
Fischer. (The provisions for children of school age.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 263 

6. H. BosBAUER, L. MiKLAs und H. ScHiNER. — " Hand- 

buch der Schwachsinnigen Fiirsorge." Leipzig und 
Wien, 1905, Teubner and Graeser. 

7. Th. Heller. — " Grundriss der Heilpadagogik." 

Leipzig, 1904, Engelmann. (The outlines of physio- 
logical pedagogy.) 

8. " Jahresberichte iiber die Hilfsschule fiir Schwach- 

befahigte in Leipzig." Leipzig, Hess und Becker. 
(Annual reports of the Leipzig auxiliary school.) 

9. G. Wanke. — "Psychiatric und Padagogik." Wiesbaden, 

1905, Bergmann. (Psychiatry and pedagogy.) 

10. Fe. Frenzel. — "Die Hilfsschulen fiir schwachbegabte 

Kinder. " Hamburg und Leipzig, 1903, Voss. (Aux- 
iliary Schools for feeble-minded children.) 



CHAPTER XV 

1. J. Demoor. — "Die anormalen Kinder und ihre erzie- 

liche Behandlung in Haus und Schule." Altenburg, 
1901, Bonde. (Abnormal children and their training 
at home and in school.) 

2. M. GoRKE. — "Die Fiirsorge fiir geistig zuriickgebliebene 

Kinder." Breslau, 1900. (The care of mentally 
deficient children.) 

3. BooDSTEiN. — " Fromme Wiinsche fiir den weiteren 

Ausbau der Hilfsschule." Dresden, Passler. (The 
extension of the auxiliary school system.) 

4. H. ScHREiBER. — "Fiir das Wohl der Dummen in 



264 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

unseren offenlliclien Schulen." Kinderfehler, 1900. 
(The welfare of the backward children in our public 
schools.) 

5. H. BosBAUER, L. MiKLAs, und H. Schiner. — "Hand- 

buch der Schwachsinnigenfiirsorge." Leipzig und 
Wien, Teubner und Graeser. 

6. Th. Heller. — "Grundriss der Heilpiidagogik." Leip- 

zig, 1904, Engelmann. (Outlines of physiological 



pedagogy.) 



CHAPTER XVI 



A. Spitzner. — "Die wissenschaftliche und praktische 
Bedeutung der piidagogischen Pathologic fiir die 
Volksschulpadagogik." Deutsche Schule, 1898, 1-4. 
(The scientific and practical signification of pedagogic 
pathology in its relation to general pedagogy.) 



CHAPTER XVII 

1. H. P. BowDiTCH. — "The Relation Between Growth and 

Disease." Transactions of the American Medical 
Association. Vol. 332. p. 371 et al. 

2. H. P. BowDiTCH. — " The Growth of Children." Eighth 

Animal Report of the State Board of Health, Mass. 
Boston, 1877. 

3. Henry H. Donaldson. — "The Growth of the Brain." 

Scrihner^s, 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 266 

4. Arthur MacDonald. — "Abnormal Man." Bureau of 

Education, Washington, D. C, 1893, Circular No. 4. 

5. Bernard Perez. — "The First Three Years of Child- 

hood." Kellogg and Co. 

6. W. Preyer. — "Mental Development in the Child." 

Appleton and Co. 

7. " School Hygiene." Ginn and Co., 1886. 

8. Thomas Barr. — "Investigations as to the Hearing of 

School Children." British Medical Journal, II, 1889. 

9. "Eye Defects in Students and Children." Pedagogical 

Seminary, V. p. 202. 

10. Edward Sequin. — "Idiocy and Its Treatment by the 

Physiological Method." William Wood & Co. 

11. G. E. Shuttleworth. — "Mentally Deficient Children, 

Their Care and Training." London, H. K. Lewis. 

12. James Parton Haney, M. D. — "Monograph, the 

Hundredth Child." N. Y. C. 

13. James Parton Haney, M. D. — "The Education of the 

Dullard in the Public School." Annals of Gynecology 
and Pediatry, Boston, 1906. 

14. Walter S. Cornell, M. D. — "Backward Children 

in the Public Schools." F. A. Davis Company, Phila- 
delphia, 1907. 

15. Walter S. Cornell, M. D. — "Eye Strain in School 

Children." New York Medical Journal, June, 1907. 

16. Henderson. — "Dependent, Delinquent and Defective 

Classes." D. C. Heath & Co. 

17. W. W. Ireland. — "The Mental Affections of Child- 

ren." P, Blakiston's Sons & Co., Philadelphia. 



266 AUXILIARY EDUCATION 

18. Morrison. — ■ " Juvenile Offenders." Appleton & Co. 

19. Barr. — " Mental Defectives." 

20. Reports of U. S. Commission of Education at Washing- 

ton, D. C. 

21. Annual Reports of Dr. William H. Maxwell, City 

Superintendent of Schools, New York City, 1902, 
1903, 1905, 1906, 1907. 

22. Reports of National Educational Association, Depart- 

ment of Special Instruction. 

1905. "The Physical Betterment of the Mentally De- 

ficient," Dr. J. H. McKee. 

"Our Limitations in Educating Mentally De- 
fective Children," Miss Pogue. 

"The Schools for the Feeble-minded," E. R. John- 
stone. 

"All Crime in Disease," Arthur B. Linsley. 

1906. "The Incorrigible Child," Julia Richman, Dis- 

trict Superintendent of Schools, New York City. 
"The Examination of the Eyes of School Chil- 
dren," John C. E. Eberhardt. 

1907. "Self-support," Frank M. Driggs. 

"The Training of the Incorrigible," W. A. Gates. 

1908. "The Functions of the Special Class," E. R. 

Johnstone. 
"The Public School and the Special Child," Earl 

Barnes. 
"The Home and the Special Child," Jane Addams. 
"The Problems of the Special Class," Elizabeth E. 
Farrell, 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 267 

"Some Urgent Needs for Advancement in the 
Education of Mentally Defective Children," 
Isabelle Thompson Smart, M. D. 

23. " The Psychological Clinic." A Journal of Orthogenics 

for the Study and Treatment of Retardation and Devia- 
tion. Psychological Clinic Press, Philadelphia. 
Lightner Witmer, Ph. D., Editor. 

24. "The Conservation of the Defective Child," by Marion 

Hamilton Carter, in McClure's Magazine , June 1909, 
p. 160-171. 



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